Introduction
Attachment refers to a lifelong emotional bond between
two people, especially affection ties between significant others. Attachment
theories spotlight psychological tendency to look for closeness to another
person for security, and to experience uneasiness when that person is absent.
However, attachment does not have to be necessarily reciprocal. Attachment is
exhibited by certain behaviour in children such as seeking proximity with the
attachment figure when disturbed or threatened. Attachment theories are useful in the study of
infant behaviours as well as in the fields of child health. Attachment theories
assume that humans are social beings.
Attachment
Theories
The various attachment theories include the cognitive
view of attachment, which centres on the contention that infants must develop
concepts of object permanence prior to attachment. The approach holds that if
children are upset about the absence of the caregivers, they must have
perceived that the caregivers continue to exist. The behavioural view of attachment
centres on the caregiver as reinforcer. Behaviourists hold that attachment behaviours
are learned through conditioning (Gabbard, Judith & Holmes 2007, p.7). The
approach stipulates that, in the process of caring for children and provision of
physiological needs, the children associate their caregivers with
gratification. Therefore, the caregiver becomes a conditioned reinforcer.
The overriding theme in attachment theories is that
mothers or caregivers, who are responsible for the provision of various needs
to the infants, institute a sense of security in their children (Gabbard,
Judith & Holmes 2007, p. 7). As a result, the infants become aware that the
caregiver is dependable, which translates into a secure base that allows the
child to explore the world.
Psychoanalytic
View of Attachment: Caregiver as Love Object
Psychoanalysts perceive the development of attachment entirely
different from behaviourist’s point of view. Psychoanalysts perceive the
caregiver as a love object who shapes the basis for all later attachments. Nevertheless,
psychoanalysts and behaviourists agree that the caregiver’s role in gratifying
the child’s needs is paramount. Freud, the pioneer of psychoanalytic theory, held
that the emotional attachment of the child to the caregiver arises from the
fact that the caregiver is the primary satisfier of the child’s needs
(Goldberg, Muir & Kerr 2000, p.46). On the other hand, Erik Erickson holds
that the first year is decisive for the child to developing a sense of trust in
the caregiver. He also stipulated that the mother’s sensitivity to the child’s
needs cultivates development of trust and attachment.
Discussion
John Bowlby (1969) pioneered attachment theory whereby
he described attachment as an enduring psychological connectedness between two
human beings. Bowlby held that the initial bonds constructed by children with
their caregivers’ yield an incredible impact, strong enough to last their
entire life. Bowlby also held that the attachment serves to unite the infant
with the mother thus enhancing the child’s chances of survival. According to
Bowlby, attachment is adaptive, and the finest development of attachment occurs
in environments of safety, whereby affect resonance and attachment
communications between the child and the caregiver are vital (Goldberg, Muir
& Kerr 2000, p.47).
Harlow’s
View of Attachment: Caregiver as a Source of Contact and Comfort
Bowlby’s work inspired Harlows’ series of experiments
on rhesus monkeys. The psychologist probed the effects of maternal separation
and social isolation. The experiments articulated the significance of caregiving
and companionship in both cognitive and social development of the child. Harlow
also demonstrated that attachment is not entirely based on reliance on food
(Goldberg, Muir & Kerr 2000, p.48).
Components
of Attachment
Children develop diverse styles of attachment
depending on the experiences and interactions they have with their caregivers. Their
components of attachment comprise of haven, whereby children find refuge in
caregivers whenever they feel threatened or terrified. There is also secure
base in which the caregiver offers a safe and dependable platform for the child
to explore the environment. Proximity maintenance, on the other hand, revolves
around the child always striving to stay close to the caregiver in order to
feel safe.
Lastly, separation distress is experienced due to the child’s
separation from the caregiver. Alienation of the child from the mother causes
disturbance and anxiety. In assessing attachment during childhood, researchers
have developed assorted ways of appraising attachment during childhood; they comprise
of Strange Situation Protocol and standardized interviews, questionnaires, and
tests such as Attachment Story Competition (Bornstein 2008, p.51).
Ainsworth’s
“Strange Situation”
Mary Ainsworth expanded upon Bowlby’s work by
pioneering studies that revealed the weighty effect of attachment on behaviour.
The study centered on children between the ages of 12 and 18 months; children
were briefly alienated from their mothers before reunion (Goldberg, Muir and
Kerr 2000, p.49).
Attachment
Styles in Children
Based on observations made on children behaviours, Ainsworth
outlined three significant modes of attachment; secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure
attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment. Each of the attachment style
reflected certain kinds of attachment relationships between the child and the
parents. In 1986, researchers Main and Solomon introduced disorganized-
insecure attachment. Ever since Ainsworth’s initial research, most of the
studies in this area have affirmed Ainsworth’s attachment styles. Consequently,
the studies have also confirmed that the stated attachment styles have a
profound effect on behaviours in later life (Mash & Wolfe 2010, p.178).
Characteristics
of the Patterns of Attachment
Secure
Attachment
Securely attached children display distress when
alienated from their caregivers and are pleased when their caregiver returns. The
children feel secure in the company of their caregivers and are dependent on
the caregivers. A securely attached child explores unreservedly when the
caregiver is present and engages with strangers, but is visibly upset when the
caregiver departs. Nevertheless, the child is cheerful to see the return of the
caregiver.
Departure of the caregiver heralds distress on the
children, even though they remain confident that the parent or the caregiver
will come back. If threatened, securely
attached children seek comfort and reassurance from the caregivers. The provision of assistance reinforces the
sense of security in the child and gives the child ideas on how to tackle the difficulty
in the future (Mash & Wolfe 2010, p. 179). Securely attached children are
aware of a secure base to find shelter in the episodes of rapprochement or
times of need. Secure attachment can be described as the most adaptive
attachment style.
Anxious-Ambivalent
Attachment
Ambivalent attached children habitually become exceedingly
distressed when the parent or caregiver leaves. The child is hesitant even with
the return of the caregiver. The child also seeks to remain close to the
caregiver resentfully. The child also displays resistance when the caregiver
initiates attention. Children who exhibit anxious–resistant attachment style
are particularly nervous to exploring and anxious when in the company of
strangers, irrespective of the presence of the caregiver (Mash & Wolfe
2010, p. 181). Although relatively rare, ambivalent attachment results from
poor maternal or caregiver availability. Therefore, ambivalent attached
children cannot depend on their parents or caregiver to be available,
especially when they are in need.
Anxious-Avoidant
insecure Attachment
Avoidant–insecure children usually tend to avoid or
ignore the parents or caregivers. The children exhibit modest emotion when the
caregiver departs or returns. In addition, the children are unwilling to
explore the environment. When offered a choice, children with avoidant
attachment do not exhibit any preference between a caregiver and a stranger. Children
with anxious-avoidant attachment do not show a lot of emotional range whether
in the company of others or not (Mash & Wolfe 2010, p.182).
Research on this topic reveals that the occurrence of
this attachment stems from disengaged care giving, and exposure of the child to
abuse or neglect by the caregivers. Hence, children who are penalized for depending
on parents or caregivers will most likely evade seeking help from the
caregivers in the future. This is because the child comes to believe that
communication of needs is inconsequential to the parents or caregivers.
Mary
Main and Solomon’s Disorganized Attachment
This style of attachment incorporates the deficiency
of a reliable style or pattern for coping. Whereas avoidant and ambivalent
styles of attachment may fail effective test, the two styles avail strategies
for which the child can utilize when dealing with the world. Children who
exhibit disorganized attachment view their caregivers as either frightened or
frightening. In disorganized attachment, the interactions between the child and
the caregiver are normally inconsistent, which precipitate lack of concise
interactive templates. Hence, the child is provided with an inconsistent model from
which to mirror the self or the situation (Goodyer 2011, p. 36).
Attachment
Theory in Clinical Practice
The failure to develop proper attachment with
caregivers during childhood may lead to attachment disorders. The resultant
disorders may also have adverse effects throughout the lifespan of the
individual. Nevertheless, the attachment problems can be resolved through
proper therapeutic interventions such as Theraplay. The interventions aid
parents as well as children in building healthier interactions and attachment
relationships (Bornstein 2008, p.50).
Research done in this area indicates that failure to
develop secure attachments early in life exposes the child to negative behaviours
manifested in later childhood and throughout life. Many children diagnosed with
opposition defiant disorder or posttraumatic stress disorder repeatedly display
attachment problems. The insecure attachment may have arisen from the child’s
exposure to early abuse, abandonment or trauma. The problems occasioned by insecure
attachments have informed clinicians’ assertion that children adopted while six
months are predisposed to risk of attachment problems (Goodyer 2011, p. 37).
Key
Assumptions of Attachment Theory
Attachment behaviours
are adaptive and enhance the ability of individuals to survive. In addition,
the theory holds that the development of attachment is shaped at certain phases
in life. The preference of the children towards their caregivers is not
inherent since the children shape the need for attachment out of experiences
with the caregiver (Bornstein 2008, p.50). Attachment theories also stipulate
that children develop hierarchical relationships, which differ across persons since
some are close and others strained.
In addition, the theory stipulates that the attachment
to caregiver is shaped by the provision of needs and compassion during social
interactions. The theory also stipulates that later experiences with caregivers
coalesce to shape the child’s thoughts, expectations, emotions, memories as
well as behaviours about self and others. Lastly, attachment theory holds that
unrelenting separation from a caregiver or incessant changes of the caregiver
may frustrate formation of adaptive attachment behaviors. Consequently, insecure
attachments manifest as problems later in life (Bornstein 2008, p.51).
Critique
of Attachment Theory
One of the criticisms of attachment theory is grounded
in the debate on nature versus nurture. Critics argue that the theory leans too
much towards the assumption of nurture. The critics hold that caregivers have minimal
influence on the child’s personality or character. Attachment theory is also
criticized for suggesting a preoccupation with maternal relationships. Critics
argue that the preoccupation marginalizes other essential factors such as
genetic predisposition, cultural child-rearing practices, sibling status, and
peer-group influences among others (Goodyer 2011, p.38).
The
Importance of Attachment in Childhood
Attachment establishes the foundation for the child’s
later social, emotional, and cognitive development. In addition, attachment has
an immense bearing on the feelings, motives, thoughts and relationships all the
way through an individual’s life. Attachment in childhood is critical to the
formation and maintenance of relationships. Socially competent individuals are
more inclined to have better relationships and subsequent social standing
(Thompson & Henderson 2011, p.39).
Individuals who develop secure attachment during
childhood demonstrate more dedication, trust, and satisfaction in romantic
relationships compared to those with insecure attachments. Similarly, individuals
who developed secure attachments during childhood are able to triumph over
problems in relationships. Secure attachment during childhood translates into
enduring relationships be it business or romantic relationships.
The development of secure attachments in childhood promotes
the formation of a sense of security, and this reduces stress levels. This enhances
the likelihood of the individual to engage in altruistic and pro-social behaviour.
Studies conducted in this area indicate that individuals with avoidant
attachment have a weak predisposition to engage in philanthropic activities
since insecure attachments hamper empathy. Secure attachment during childhood
also enhances development of candour, authenticity, honesty, and emotional
regulation (Rutter 2002, p. 364).
Secure attachment in childhood is essential since it pre-empts
or lowers the onset of psychiatric disorders later in life. A child is
susceptible to development of psychiatric disorders after the loss of an
attachment figure. Insecure attachments in childhood predispose the child to react
in a hostile manner to their environment (Sigelman & Rider 2012, p. 464). Children
with severe attachment disorders mostly consider themselves as undeserving in
the eyes of the caregiver.
Since attachment theory centres on children’s early relationships,
which affects their development and competence to form later relationships, the
theory is critical to those who work with children in care. Attachment theory
is critical to those caring for foster children to avoid compromising the
children’s development (Rutter 2002, p. 363). Knowledge provided by attachment theory is
crucial in determining when contact is beneficial to the child experiencing dislocated
relationships. Attachment theory is also
essential in informing decisions concerning child placement and care.
The formation of secure attachment during childhood is
also imperative in development of self-esteem in the child. Securely attached
children have a strong self-concept demonstrated by a willingness to
acknowledge positive attributes about themselves (Sigelman & Rider 2012, p.
463). In cases of insecure attachment, the children are predisposed to low
self-esteem later in life. In addition, insecure attachment during childhood
exposes children to having a weak capability for independence in later life.
In summary, research done in this area indicates that
secure attachment is a protective factor that facilitates finest developmental
outcomes. Insecure attachments among children predispose them to social and
maladjustment problems. Similarly, children who develop disorganized attachment
are more inclined to the risk for psychopathology. Children who receive positive affection and
nurturing from their caregivers have an enhanced chance of a healthy
development.
Children who have had a consistent and caring relationship
during early years of life will most likely have improved ability to cope with
stress, improved academic grades, healthier behaviours, and more positive peer
interactions (Thompson & Henderson 2011, p. 40). Children who develop
insecure attachments or disorganized attachments are more probable to have a life
characterized by low trust since the feeling of insecurity may become part of
the child’s base feeling. The base feeling that the child possesses shapes his/
her understanding of the world.
How
Attachments affect a person in their Life
Attachment has a profound effect on the emotional
development of the child. Attachment in this case represents an instinctive system
that pursues the child’s needs. Early attachments in life have a phenomenal
influence on later development. Attachments,
during childhood, contribute to a wide range of individual differences that may
occur later in life. This may be in aspects such as cognition, behaviour,
social skills, emotional responses, and personality. The experiences that the
child undergoes during childhood stimulate and organize patterns of structural
growth that may yield an enhanced functional capacity for the child (Kagan
2004, p. 74). Attachment theories have made substantial inroads in demystifying
the notion of early experience. Early experiences with the caregivers shape the
child’s generalized expectations as well as beliefs (working models) on
critical aspects such as self, the world, and relationships.
The
Question on whether Insecure Attachments can be repaired
Consistent and expectable patterns of interaction
between a child and the caregiver are critical for early development of the
child. Nevertheless, insecure attachments and disorganized attachments may
develop due to inconsistent interactions between the child and the caregiver.
The disconnection that ensues between the child and the caregiver in terms of
interaction and relationship formation can be repaired or reconnected.
However, avoidant attached children possess a slim
margin of success in reestablishment of connection between the caregiver and
the child. The caregiver should help the
child to express his/ her needs freely (Kagan 2004, p. 75). The employment of
effective therapeutic interventions enables the caregiver to respond to the
child’s attachment needs sensitively. The prime focus should be raising the
resilience of the child to counter the attachment difficulties.
Psychologists have fashioned warning signs, symptoms,
and treatment to children exhibiting insecure attachment in life. This has mainly
been informed by extensive research in the specialty of development of attachment
in children. Psychologists probe how the child expresses and manages emotions and
develops relationships as well as the child’s development to discern attachment
problems (Barish 2009, p. 32). For instance, children with attachment disorder
such as reactive attachment disorder may exhibit defiance, indifference, and
opposition to attempts made to connect with the child.
Children with attachment difficulties feel unsafe and
alone. The repairing of attachment problems calls for employment of the right
tools coupled with dedication, patience, and love. In repairing of attachment
disorders, caregivers should be aware that safety is a critical issue for the
child since they are distrustful to the world and feel insecure in the world
(Kagan 2004, p.76). Therefore, the caregiver should concentrate on restoring
the child’s sense of security. This can be achieved through the establishment
of concise conventions of behaviour as well as consistent responses to the
child’s needs. Dependable and caring boundaries make the world seem more
predictable and less frightening to children suffering from attachment
problems.
In addition to making the child feel safe and secure,
the caregiver should also put efforts in making the child feel loved by aiding
the child in identification of emotions and expression of needs. Similarly, the
caregiver should also endeavour to support the child’s health. This helps to
reduce associated stress levels and levels out mood swings, which may be
prevalent in children with attachment problems (Kagan 2004, p. 78).
Lastly, the caregiver may pursue professional
treatment of attachment problems, which mainly incorporates therapy, counselling,
and parenting education (Barish 2009, p.34). The treatment is critical in
promoting of a secure living environment, structuring of positive interactions
with the caregivers as well as promotion of peer relationships. Medication in
this case may be directed at treating conditions such as depression, anxiety,
or hyperactivity.
Conclusion
The importance of development of secure attachment in
early childhood cannot be underrated. The development of secure attachments
during childhood is significant to the safety and comfort of the child,
especially later in life. Whereas attachment styles displayed in adulthood
differ from the ones in childhood, early attachments have a critical bearing on
later relationships in life. For instance, most of the people who were securely
attached in childhood are more inclined to have a high self-esteem and well
developed romantic relationships as well as a strong capability to
self-disclose to others.
References List
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in child Psychotherapy: An integrative framework, Oxford, Oxford University
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Gabbard, G., Judith, B. & Holmes, J. (2007). Oxford theory of Psychotherapy, Oxford,
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Goldberg, S., Muir, R. & Kerr, J. (2000). Attachment Theory: Social, developmental,
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Goodyer, A . (2011). Child-centred foster care: A rights-based model for practice,
London, Jessica Kingsley. pp. 36-38.
Kagan, R. (2004). Rebuilding
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Mash, E. & Wolfe, D. (2010). Abnormal child Psychology, Belmont, Wadsworth. pp.178-182.
Rutter, M. (2002). Child
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