Research Articles Digest

Friday, 20 July 2012

0 Effective Teamwork in Organizations

Organizational structures are designed to enhance productivity, provide a flow of information and are deliberately set to work in the most effective and efficient manner as suited to the industry the organization is in. As the world moves towards globalization and rapid information sharing, the need for collaboration, innovation and flexibility within the organizational structure is increasing (Mealiea & Baltazar, pg141, 2005). One of the ways top management is rising up to meet these challenges is to promote team building and team work within organizations so that the individual skills and abilities of the employees can be tapped into simultaneously and result in more creative and faster solutions. A cohesive team with a clear strategy is one of the most important assets for any organization towards achieving their goals and introduces the process of ‘synergy’ in the work environment.

Current literature all support the idea of flexible project based organizations as the most effective units in today’s world. These organizations can respond rapidly to changing external factors and crisis situations by forming semi autonomous problem solving teams which can combine the expertise and skills necessary to deal with the risk laden and uncertain environment (Lam, pg17-19, 2004). A team based structure can be configured to take the advantage of the employees’ unique abilities to generate new ideas and foster innovation- two very important things required for the survival of any organization. It also allows for a more adaptive work environment which is more effective under rapid changes.

Increasingly it can be seen that workers in the UK and the Eastern Europe don’t work in isolation any more, even in organization where formal teams are not constructed informal teams build up around a project or objective. These people share similar goals and working together it is possible to achieve better and faster results. But for most organizations teams are deliberately structured to facilitate collaboration and productivity; these teams can be cross functional teams, functional work teams, project teams, self managed teams or even management teams. Factors such as the degree of autonomy each individual member has, decision authority, shared or traditional leadership, structural support and responsibility are assigned according to the requirements and work nature of each team and can differ greatly. The important thing is to make sure that all members of a team recognize and accept these factors and together the characteristics of the team should contribute towards the end goal.

Often team building efforts are not as successful as the management would have hoped. Team clashes often occur because of mismatched personalities, uncertainty about assigned roles or a lock of clear direction. One of the main reasons for the failure of team building efforts is a lack of understanding about the correct team structure and requirements. Teams are sometimes designed with the help of outside expertise- in the UK itself, a number of firms offer organizations the chance to hire experts who would conduct team building exercises and determine the team structures – however, these outsiders are often unaware of the intricate networks which exist within offices and play out because of social interactions and may propose team solution which in the long run will not be productive within the organizational culture. The correct person to determine the nature of the teams should be the manager who is informed about the individual employees and can match up the right personalities for the right kind of goals. The manager will also be able to assess personal goals with regards to organizational goals and allow for team objectives which have increased job involvement and job satisfaction for those involved- leading to high motivation.

In designing the team the manager can follow some set guidelines in forming the most effective team. The first step has to be an assessment of the team characteristics which would lead to success. “Behavioral scientists argue that the success of team-building efforts is a function of the number of desirable team characteristics that can be built into a work environment”(Mealiea & Baltazar, pg142, 2005). An insightful manager can decide the interpersonal and technical skills required within the team, the amount of power distribution, teams’ level in organization and the tasks to be performed. Assigning the supporting characteristics of the team provides the necessary formal structure for the people involved and the increases chances of success. The second step is to identify the people who will be well suited to the decided team dynamics and recruit them for the team. The manager may use his own knowledge of employee personalities, attitudes and needs along with interviews or informal talks to decide whether a candidate will prove to be a productive team member. After the team profile has been made, what remains to be seen is what kind of deficiencies exists in the team characteristics and how they may be changed.

An effective management realizes that any initial team building effort will result in a team which is far from ideal. The next step after the team has been formed is to identify the strategies required for the team deficiencies to be removed. These problems may range from a lack of a clear direction, unavailability of required resources, communication and trust problems within the team or even rivalry between individual members. A good technique would be schedule periodic feedback sessions to review the performance of the team with regards to set objectives and allow open communication to air out concerns and take suggestions. Formal training sessions, coaching and strong leadership can overcome some of these problems and maintaining specific milestones with appropriate rewards will keep the team working in the right direction. The important thing to remember is that the team dynamics would differ with each task and each organization and the problems which arise have to be dealt on a case by case basis, though feedback and open communication will always help in identifying those and lead towards solutions.

When talking about the modern organization we have to give consideration to the technological aspects of the structure as well. Virtual teams are becoming ever more popular as the communication technology keeps advancing and employers see the advantages of allowing flexible work timings and schedules for their employees. In the UK as in the rest of the world, many workers are opting for the option of working from home and collaborating using intranets and internets to collaborate with their peers. Similarly the trend of outsourcing, offshoring and nearshoring is on the rise with 57% of UK organizations taking part in these practices in 2007 (up from 47% the year before). According to Phil Morris, managing director of EquaTerra for Europe, "this is all being driven by technology, the speed of processors and telecommunications, together with cleverer application interfaces and graphical user interfaces" (Heath, 2008). Web 3.0 allows virtual collaboration and team work through tools like IM, email, shared documents, video conferences and video calls- two employees on the far ends of the world can work on online project together while getting constant input from their supervisor.

The advantages of having virtual workers are many; they open up a global source of expertise for organizations, cuts down on overhead costs and allow greater job satisfaction for the employees- in UK telecommuters made up 8% of the workforce at the beginning of the millennium. However, productive virtual teams are much different in nature than physical teams and come with their own problems along than the traditional ones discussed before. The main problem is that there can be no direct supervision, without face to face communication it can be hard to gauge the motivation level of employees and whether they are working efficiently. The lack of a physical meeting space also means that interpersonal bonds may be difficult to form leading to lower trust and interdependence. From the employees side there may be problems like lack of recognition or unfair work load which cannot be easily delegated.

Managing virtual teams is a completely different area of expertise for managers, even with the technological advances taking place there is still some time before an effective and proven way of managing virtual teamwork emerges. While no one can deny the importance of these teams, trial and error along with intuition is still the best way to gauge their long term performance in an organization.

Organizations are better off when they adopt a team based structure. In an era of globalization and rapid change, organizations need to be flexible, innovative and should allow a culture of creativity and cooperation. Teams provide a formal structure and work space to merge the skills of the employees in a productive direction. While effective teamwork is not always easy to ensure due to the personalities of individual members or any other conflicting group dynamics, if they are carefully supervised and supported, teams can provide better solutions to organizational problems. Technology has ushered in a new era of work practices and introduced different formats of teams enabled by internet connectivity but existing without any physical support. These teams are the future of the modern workplace work and despite the concerns about effective management smart organizations will take advantage of these in order to ensure their survival.

Biliography

Mealiea, L. & Baltazar, R., 2005. A Strategic Guide for Building Effective Teams. Public Personnel Management Volume 34 No. 2 Summer 2005, pg141-156.

Lam, A., 2004. Organizational innovation. BRESE, School of Business and Management

Brunel University Uxbridge, West London, working paper 1, pg 4-20. Available at: < http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/11539/1/BRESE_org_innovation_Lam_WP1.pdf>

Heath, N., 2008. India top destination for UK outsourcing. ZDNet. Available from: < http://www.zdnet.co.uk/news/it-strategy/2008/01/14/india-top-destination-for-uk-outsourcing-39292109/>

Pohlman, P., 2002. Team Building: Major Issues Facing Teams. Poynter. Available at: <http://www.poynter.org/uncategorized/1831/team-building-major-issues-facing-teams/>

Distefano, J. 2000. Creating Value with diverse teams. Organizational dynamics, vol. 29, no.1.

Seimens, press release. Siemens unveils Senior Management team for Building Technologies division in the UK. Available from :< http://www.siemens.co.uk/en/news_press/index/news_archive/building-technologies-management-team.htm>

Team Trainers, 2011. Scientists’ Review Raises Problems with Team Building. Available at:< http://suddenteams.com/teams-blog/scientists-review-raises-problems-team-building>

Kjerulf, A., 2007. The top 5 reasons why team building events are a waste of time. The chief happiness officer. Available at:< http://positivesharing.com/2007/10/the-top-5-problems-with-corporate-team-building/>

Robbins, P.S & Judge, T.A., 2011. Organizational Behaviour. 13th Ed.

Management library, 2012. Group Dynamics: Basic Nature of Groups and How They Develop. Available at: < http://managementhelp.org/groups/dynamics-theories.htm>

0 LEONARDO DA VINCI

Introduction

Art is an important phenomenon, which excites people and plays various important roles. This paper introduces Leonardo Da Vinci, who is a famous painter. In addition, the paper covers the life of Da Vinci and some of his famous pieces. Finally, the paper presents the characteristics of these pieces of art by Leonardo Da Vinci.

Leonardo Da Vinci’s Life

Interestingly, this great artist was illegitimately born to Piero and Caterina da Vinci at three in the morning of 15-4-1452. Leonardo Da Vinci was closely linked with his mother from the time he was born to the time he was five. Verrocchio was the name of his teacher who trained Da Vinci in a Florentine studio until he began his art career. Leonardo was 14 years during his apprenticeship. He spent the following years in mastering what the world would later love and remember him. It is significant to mention that the establishment of Leonardo Da Vinci personal workshop at 20 years was commendable[1]. During his career, Leonardo Da Vinci experienced both pleasant moments in which many people admired him. However, throughout his art existence, Da Vinci equally experienced low moments in which his works were criticized[2].

For instance, Leonardo Da Vinci was lucky to get numerous rich clients because of the perfection of his works. Leonardo died, 67, as a vegetarian after a life of painting using most inspirations from his life. Leonardo Da Vinci’s highlight was when Lorenzo de Medici, an Italian rich man asked him to design a silver piece of art. The silver lyre which he initiated made him get more orders from this rich Italian man. Leonardo’s life focused on respect for nature because of his continuous habit to free birds in to their natural homes. Finally, Leonardo Da Vinci’s life had most celebrations because up to date people still have T-shirts and other sales materials, which have his paintings.

Most Famous Paintings

Evidently, “Vitruvian Man, The Last Supper and Mona Lisa “are the most popular paintings of Da Vinci. In particular, The Last Supper (painted on a rectory wall) began to deteriorate following its creation because Da Vinci did not use the tempera on panel technique. [3]The creation of the Last Supper was instantly when Jesus indicated that a disciple would be disloyal to Him. It is unfortunate that a majority of Leonardo Da Vinci works do not survive because of his deep sense of adventure with new technologies. However, even if the painting flaked, there was a recent remodeling of the same in order for people to enjoy viewing it. Moreover, The Mona Lisa is called half a smile because of Leonardo Da Vinci’s unique use of lightning in most of his paintings. In addition, Leonardo kept on postponing the completion of some of his pieces. Therefore, the available work could be perfect if he had more focus. It is also imperative to mention that his early work was called “The Baptism of Christ”, which he created with Verrocchio. All Leonardo Da Vinci’s renowned paintings display diverse aspects of movement unlike the remaining painters.

Characteristics of Leonardo Da Vinci’s Art

It is noteworthy to mention that Da Vinci’s works borrow a great deal of the human anatomy. Originally, The Mona Lisa was meant to be a private piece which took two years for the completion of its creation. This Mona Lisa painting is set on a significant light, which enables people to notice the uniqueness of the painting. The most obvious special characteristic about The Mona Lisa is Leonardo’s use of the smoke technique. Further, this smoke technique makes it hard for anyone to notice the difference between darkness and lightness in the picture. The liquid paint, which Leonardo uses, depicts his understanding of the world to be always in movement[4]. Additionally, the painting of Mona Lisa is unique because of the unique half smile presented by Leonardo. The face of the woman in the painting is straight to the viewer. However, the rest of her body faces the direct opposite from where Mona Lisa faces. Leonardo includes some aspects of nature in the background of this well-liked picture because of his love for nature. For instance, Leonardo Da Vinci paints rivers and rocks in a manner that makes Mona Lisa’s smile out stand out further. In addition, one cannot tell where the dress, which Mona Lisa wears, begins or ends. Therefore, this is another unique feature of Leonardo’s Mona Lisa[5].

The painting of The Last Supper is characteristic of an extremely emotional picture, which was for a certain monastery in Santa Maria. In this painting, Leonardo Da Vinci captures respective emotions of the twelve Disciples of Christ. In an elaboration of this Last Supper piece, Leonardo depicts that the display of individual emotions is called “motions of the mind”[6]. Additionally, this painting of The Last Supper has a significant order in the sense that everyone who is represented in the painting seems to play its role. There is a unique that Leonardo Da Vinci portrays the Head of Christ. Consequently, the uniqueness of the painting comes from the special attention he gives this head of Christ[7]. Apart from making the head to be central, Leonardo also ensures that the head meets the horizon in the picture. Da Vinci paints the twelve Disciples in three clusters of four, which could be symbolic of their historical calls to serve with Christ. Like the great artist that he is, Leonardo sets Judas apart from the rest of the disciples in the most artistic manner ever[8]. Leonardo introduces a significant kind of shade on the face of Judas in order to make him more visible.

Conclusion

It is evident that Davinci was a great painter. Therefore, there needs to be continuation of his work through diverse ways. For example, the creation of art schools across the globe would lead to the continuation of his work[9]. In addition, any individuals who display such talents as Leonardo’s must undergo professional art training so that there is creation of more beautiful art.

Bibliography

Cremante, Simona, and Carlo Pedretti. 2005. Leonardo da Vinci: [artist, scientist, inventor]. Firenze: Giunti

Kalz, Jill. 2003. The Mona Lisa. North Mankato, MN.: Creative Education.

Leonardo, Jean Paul Richter, and R. C. Bell. 1970. The notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci. vol. 1. New York: Dover Publications.

O'Connor, Barbara. 2003. Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance genius. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books.

Malam, John. 1999. Leonardo da Vinci. Minneapolis, Mn: Carolrhoda Books.

Stanley, Diane. 1996. Leonardo da Vinci. New York: Morrow Junior Books

Witteman, Barbara. 2008. Leonardo Da Vinci. Mankato, Minn: Capstone.

Zöllner, Frank, and Leonardo. 2006. Léonard de Vinci, 1452-1519. Köln: Taschen

[1] Leonardo, Jean Paul Richter, and R. C. Bell. The notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci. vol. 1. (New York: Dover Publications, 1970) 1.

[2] Zöllner, Frank, and Leonardo. 2006. Léonard de Vinci, 1452-1519. (Köln: Taschen, 2006) 4

[3] Stanley, Diane. Leonardo da Vinci. (New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1996) 1

[4] Cremante, Simona, and Carlo Pedretti. 2005. Leonardo da Vinci: [artist, scientist, inventor].( Firenze: Giunti, 2005) 56

[5] Stanley, Diane. Leonardo da Vinci. (New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1996) 21

[6] Kalz, Jill. The Mona Lisa. (North Mankato, MN.: Creative Education, 2003) 34

[7] O'Connor, Barbara. Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance genius. (Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, 2003) 12

[8] Witteman, Barbara. Leonardo Da Vinci. (Mankato, Minn: Capstone, 2008) 11

[9] Malam, John. Leonardo da Vinci. (Minneapolis, Mn: Carolrhoda Books, 1999) 21

0 Thomas Jefferson's View on Slavery

Thomas Jefferson was the third American president. His term lasted from 1801 to 1809. Born in 1743, he grew up in Virginia at a period when slavery had existed for almost 75 years. Jefferson grew up in a plantation in Virginia with enslaved workers. As an adult, he owned slaves. Although he owned slaves, Jefferson opposed slavery. His views on slavery remain contradicted since at one point he considered blacks inferior to other races while at the same time calling for an end to slavery. Historians have always debated on the contradictions between his words and actions relating to the issue of slavery. In his life, Jefferson appears to have contradicted his writing, views, deeds and thoughts on the issue of slavery (Bernstein 56).

Jefferson as an opponent against slavery

As a young legislator and president, Jefferson took actions that he thought would aid in ending slavery. As a young legislator in Virginia, he had tried to advocate the private land owners to free their slaves. This was, however, unsuccessful as private land owners viewed this as a way towards economic downfall. They used slaves as cheap labor in their plantations and thus, if they had supported Jefferson in his advocacy for slavery end, they would have suffered economically. Although he failed in his advocacy for slavery abolishment by private land owners, Jefferson later returned to draft a bill barring freed blacks from staying in Virginia. He drafted a Virginia law prohibiting the importation of enslaved blacks into the state (Zinn 120). He was successful in the passage of this bill. Nevertheless, it is viewed that the private land owners in his state passed the bill to raise the price of slaves who were already their captives. In 1784, Jefferson forwarded a proposal to ban slavery in the newly created territories of the northwest. As the principal author of the land ordinance of 1784, he called for an end to slavery and involuntary servitude in these territories. Jefferson wanted a line to be drawn depicting the north and south at which slavery should not be extended westwards of the impassable line. This bill, however, was defeated by a single vote. Jefferson also proposed in the mid 1770s for a means through which those born into slavery could be freed. He referred to this as gradual emancipation by which after a certain date, those who were born into slavery became freed. In his advocacy for gradual emancipation of slaves, Jefferson wanted slaves to be resettled out of the United States, or they be returned to Africa (Spahn 65). He believed that once slaves were freed, the oppression they had suffered under their masters would breed hatred for their masters. He saw to it that the slaves would instigate violence on their former masters. It is in this thought that he believed the best plan would be to resettle slaves out of America. These actions show the efforts by Jefferson, while still a legislator, to end and stop slavery at the time. As president, in 1807, Jefferson signed an act which prohibited importation of slaves. This act helped to outlaw international slave trade in the United States although it took effect almost a year later. Jefferson was also the chief author of the declaration of independence in which he strongly argued against slavery (Zinn 49). Through the declaration of independence, he noted that slavery opposed nature which calls for every human being to be treated and respected equally. He called the institution to be immoral and not just. In his first draft of the declaration, he noted that every man was equal, and slavery did not replicate this but only caused oppression and death to those held captive. These statements represent Jefferson’s stance on slavery which he opposed.

Thomas Jefferson’s views on slavery also became noted through his use of strong words in which he called for an end to the institution. Through his writing and correspondence with political and business associates, his strong words against slavery stood out. His views on slavery became apparent through his writings in which he called slavery as an abominable crime, a hideous blot and a fatal stain that impacted humanity negatively (Jefferson 132). Jefferson’s strong statements on slavery clearly underlined his views on slavery. His views indicated those of an individual who viewed slavery as a crime. Jefferson is remembered for his excellent writing and conversation skills with which he used to condemn the heinous act that was slavery. In the first draft of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson strongly condemned Great Britain for its role and sponsorship of slavery. This passage on his views about slavery was deleted from the final document, but it clearly indicated his feelings and views towards slavery. Jefferson noted in the first draft that slavery had deprived slaves of their sacred rights to freedom and liberty. Britain, through its support of the transatlantic slave trade, had caused miserable pain and deaths of slaves, he noted. He claimed that slavery had brought horrors to humanity in his initial draft of the Declaration of Independence. This first draft of the Declaration of Independence ignited serious debate among delegates who had gathered in Philadelphia (Coglian 192). His writings on antislavery indicated the institution to be wrong and evil. He complained to his friends and business associates through writing on the immorality of slavery. Often through his writing, he would condemn them for failing to criticize the act of slavery or practicing free labor in their businesses. He viewed slavery as undemocratic and contradictory to the rule of nature. Jefferson’s views on slavery became influenced by the fact that he was extremely religious. He based his writings on religious foundations, which he believed opposed slavery. He believed that Christianity indicated that all human beings are to be equal and deserve equal opportunity as well as treatment. He also opposed slavery in his notes on Virginia. He noted that the act of slavery was demoralizing to both the captive and master.

Thomas Jefferson also acted by his own will later after his presidency to end slavery. As a slave holder, he freed some of his slaves. In his lifetime as a slave holder, he freed two slaves related to Betty Hemings in the 1790s. Through his will after his death, Jefferson freed two of Sally Heming’s children who still were his captives (Coglian 49). He freed another two slaves: children of Sally Hemings by letting them walk away to their freedom. According to his will, he indicated another three older slaves to be freed. These older slaves had already served him for years. These actions, although somewhat late in coming, indicate that Jefferson became clearly determined to end slavery as an individual. Jefferson never managed to free all of his slaves since he was in massive debt and the sale of his slaves was used to settle his debts. His lifestyle and family problems meant that he would remain tied to owning slaves. The prices of tobacco, which became low, meant that he also required slaves for his economic survival (Zinn 342). At the time, owning slaves meant that plantation and private land owners would receive cheap labor. In his quest to end slavery, Jefferson accorded better treatment to his slaves. He provided better accommodation to his slaves compared to what other slaves were provided with. Historical records reveal that Jefferson maintained records of the cost it took to feed, house and care all his slaves who worked at his plantation. He accorded his slaves paternalistic care since he believed that he was obligated to them, and they were dependent on him for their survival. Jefferson believed slaves were unable to take care of themselves, and they required paternal care. Jefferson was compassionate towards his slaves, which limited his income as he always felt they should be treated decently. This feeling of care, which he showed towards his slaves, indicates Jefferson as opposed to slavery. As an ambassador of the United States to France, Jefferson was accompanied by a few slaves including Sally Hemings and his brother James. Jefferson is reported to have had a longstanding relationship with Sally that bore him six children. His relationship with a slave signifies that he may have been open to equality and viewed slaves to be just like him. Marriage among slaves in the state of Virginia was illegal, but Jefferson encouraged the extension of familial bonds among his slaves (Spahn 101). This meant that many slave families remained intact and never became disoriented. This also shows that Jefferson did mind about the familial obligations slaves needed.

Contradictions regarding Jefferson’s view on slavery

Although Jefferson was against slavery, there are a few contradictions which arose due to the nature of his words and actions. Jefferson’s statements strongly rejected slavery as an institution, but he also is criticized for not doing enough to end slavery as a travesty. Critics argue that Jefferson, as a president, did not take enough political action to stop slavery (Coglian 189). Jefferson barely backed up his words with actions. He openly wrote against slavery but did not act in the same zeal to end slavery in his country and state.

Jefferson held slaves throughout his adult life. It is ironical for him to call for the freeing of slaves, yet he still possessed them. Although he advocated the freedom of slaves, Jefferson never freed all of his slaves (Zinn 186). He continued to own slaves even though he asked his political friends and business peers to free their slaves. Jefferson owned several hundred slaves at his Monticello home in Virginia. This becomes somewhat ironical and contradictory to his strong statements, which were clearly against the institution. His lifestyle, family problems and debts could not allow him to free his slaves who provided him with free labor. His death meant that his remaining slaves were to be sold to clear off his debts. These slaves became transferred to other masters and, in turn, continued to be enslaved. This action by Jefferson as an individual to not undertake any measures and free his own slaves indicates that he somehow was in support of the travesty. Furthermore, Jefferson had a relationship with a slave of his who bore him children. Jefferson never went public about this relationship and it may seem as though he might have been embarrassed about it. His handling of this relationship may indicate his distaste for slaves that he was not proud to exhibit the relationship.

In his writings to political and business friends, he protested on how slavery was immoral, but insisted that it had to continue. His chief concern was that in case slaves were freed, they would rise against their former oppressive masters (Kennedy 140). He insisted that freeing slaves would instigate violence in the south. He noted that the differences between slaves and their masters were so great that they could not coexist in the same environment should they get freed. His other concern was that economic survival in the south depended largely on free labor provided by slaves. These slaves worked in the large plantations owned by white masters. Jefferson had also noted that he felt African Americans were racially inferior and required paternal care (Jefferson 109). He, therefore, felt that it was upon the superior white race to take care of slaves, and thus the need for slavery to continue. After meeting a few freed, educated black slaves, his view on inferiority of the black race seemed to change. Jefferson in his writings contradicted himself since, on the one hand, he appears to claim slavery as immoral but, on the other hand, argues for it to continue. This contradiction begs the question as to whether Jefferson wast committed to abolishing slavery. He appears to be on a double edged sword as the end of slavery would have impacted negatively his personal, political and economic existence.

Questions also arise in regard to Jefferson’s silence and perceived inaction on slavery in the 1800s. His loud silence is viewed as that of a president who was not fully committed to ending slavery in his country. He appeared to take no public action against slavery in his state of Virginia or in his country. When slavery became presented as an issue of national concern, Jefferson simply dismissed it. In his purchase of Louisiana, Jefferson excluded the issue of slavery (Zinn 401). This was viewed as a way by him to try and maintain his support from the south and avoid the sectional conflict. Jefferson also made efforts to ban slavery in the newly acquired territories of the northwest, yet he failed to do the same in the south. His advocacy for slavery abolishment appears to have been prejudiced and not fair upon all the states in his country. Although Jefferson spoke vehemently on his plan to emancipate slaves to Africa, he never took any political action to oversee this. He only made proposals regarding emancipation of the slaves but clearly lacked the will in ensuring the process was reached and achieved. It is argued that Jefferson may have feared to undertake the process of emancipation. His fear sprung due to the fact that there occurred a violent uprising in Haiti (Coglian 203). The violence witnessed from slaves in Haiti may have made him to think twice about the repercussions of emancipation.

Conclusion

Thomas Jefferson is celebrated as an important figure in the history of United States. Not only was he the country’s third president, but also an accomplished writer, philosopher, architect and farmer. He was the chief author of the Declaration of Independence. Despite his other virtues, contradiction arises whenever his name is mentioned on his views of slavery. His statements reflect a man who was categorically opposed to slavery. He stated in his writings that he believed slavery to be immoral and an abominable crime which had to be abolished. Some of his deeds, though, reflect a man who was not entirely dedicated to ending slavery in his country or state. He personally owned slaves and, as president, went silent on the issue of slavery. He even contradicted himself in some of his correspondence to friends. He saw the black race as inferior to his own. He proclaimed that slaves required stewardship as they could not survive on their own. He did not want an end to slavery either since it would have meant a loss of free labor and economic downfall. He also feared for the safety of slave owners in case freed slaves ever decided to retaliate. Although he opposed slavery and viewed it as immoral, it is apparent that Thomas Jefferson’s views were a little twisted.

Works Cited

Bernstein, Richard B. Thomas Jefferson. Oxford: Oxford university press, 2005. Print.

Cogliano, Francis D. Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy. Vigirnia: University of Virginia

Press, 2008. Print.

Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the State of Virginia. South Carolina: Forgotten Books, 2010. Print.

Kennedy, Walter Donald. Myths of American Slavery. Louisiana: Pelican Publishing, 2003. Print.

Spahn, Hannah. Thomas Jefferson, Time, and History. Virginia: University of Virginia Press,

2011. Print.

Zinn, Howard. A Peoples History of the United States. New York: HarperCollins, 2010. Print.

0 Comparing and Contrasting Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson Work on Child Psychology

Introduction

Development psychology has undergone many changes since the beginning of the 20th century. Most early theorists influenced the field of psychology significantly. Notable theorist whose impact determines child psychology and early childhood education are Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson. This paper delves into the contribution of these two theorists in their study of various development stages, the differences and similarities in their theories and significance of these stages.

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

The theory proposed by Piaget focuses on the various stages of a child where transition from one stage to the other follows a sequence. He developed the stages with key ideas as his building blocks. It is necessary to look into the concepts that form the bases of his theory. Firstly is the issue of schemata that he conceptualized as the mental structure that represents the world. Through the learning process, children change their schemata by adapting, due to assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation adds new information to the existing schemata while adaptation modifies new information into the schemata. Ideally, there is balance between assimilation and accommodation to ensure equilibrium.

From the above ideas, he developed the four stages through observation of children. He believed all children passed through the stages sequentially throughout their lifetime. The stages are divided based on age and abilities accompanying them. He divided the stages into four (Snowman et al 33).

Sensorimotor stage: This represents the period from infancy and up to two years of age. At this period, movement and application of senses takes place. Additionally, mental images begin to form while images of objects remain engrained in the child’s mind.

Preoperational period: It takes place between two and seven years where symbolic thoughts develop. Reasoning is nonetheless shallow. Measurement abilities are equally low even when features of objects change.

Concrete stage: Children between the ages of seven to eleven learn to reason and perform mental problems on numbers; the children also look into problems from different perspectives and can reverse activities mentally.

Formal operation stage: It occurs from eleven years of age to adulthood. Abstract thinking takes center stage. Similarly, in this stage hypothesis formation and deduced reasoning become easier to understand.

Eric Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory

He developed his theory much later than Piaget did, but he also dealt in development with eight unique stages across the life of a person. New hurdles characterized each stage; the way the person deals with hurdles at a stage determines the aftermath. Consequently, naming of the stages occurred with the likely outcomes in mind. The stages include:

Trust vs. mistrust: Occurs in children below the age of one. The theory posits that, in this stage, the infant is totally dependent on parents and caregivers. Thus, trust is established when the infant feels safe under care; likewise mistrust occurs when safety is minimal. Mistrust and minimal attachment of the child also creates an environment of fear.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Takes place between one and three years of age. The child develops some sense of independence through learning basic life skills. When children accomplish the purpose of the stage they feel secure. Failure, on the other hand, leads to self-doubt and insecurity.

Initiative vs. Guilt: Takes place between three and six years of age, children become aware of the social environment. Social settings affect the children to exert authority when opportunity is provided.

Industry vs. Inferiority: It covers the ages of six to twelve; competition with fellow children brings out the abilities and skills of the children. A feeling of competency for the victors follows while feelings of doubts linger on the minds of unsuccessful children.

Identity vs. Confusion: The period coincides with the onset of adolescence up to young adulthood. An individual forms an identity, understands his/her role in society and experiences a sense of direction in life. Those who do not succeed emerge bruised with feelings of insecurity of the future.

Intimacy vs. Isolation: Relationships are significant factors for the success of individuals; success depends on healthy and secure relationships. Lack of identity leads to lower self-esteem and higher rates of depression (Snowman et al. 29).

Generativity vs. stagnation: In adulthood, people are productive in their lives through family, work and career. Success in this stage exudes feelings of accomplishment to the society. Failure leads to stagnation in life and unproductive lives.

Integrity vs. Despair: Eric’s last stage deals with the period of old age, people look back into their lives, and accomplishment during one’s life brings bout feelings of contentment while failure leads to disappointment at the wasted opportunities. Additionally, satisfaction follows those who have accomplished their life long wishes (Snowman et al. 30).

Differences

Erik’s theory focuses on the entire development process in life in eight stages. He asserts that the environment interacts with an individual to influence the development. In each of the phases, one encounters crisis and success depends on how he handles the challenges. Skills acquired in progression to another stage lessen insecurity in the individual. These challenges occur in the lifespan from infancy to older age of an individual. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development looks into thought processes of a person. His emphasis is mainly in the earlier stages below the age of twelve. Development of cognitive skills occurs from infancy to the operational phase (above 12 years of age) where abstract thoughts make sense. Naming of the stages represents the cognitive skill attained in the child and adult. Despite the use of stages, they both differ on the timing aspect; Erikson’s theory holds that the first stage ends at one year old while Piaget postulates that the first stage ends at two years of age.

Erikson draws inspiration from the psychoanalytic school of thought as earlier espoused by Freud (Smart 79). His theory came into being later than Piaget’s; Erikson added more ideas to Freud’s theory, that the environment determined personality in individuals. Erikson recognized the significance of sense, autonomy versus shame and doubt provides a compelling example of this. The child uses symbols to represent people and places. Challenges are bound to occur in every stage in Erikson’s theory; in contrast, Piaget focus ends in adulthood while assuming the advent of old age.

Their views on the development process show remarkable differences in the late teens. Piaget views an adolescent as a rational being with rational thoughts. Erik posits that at this stage, the teenager focuses on independence in decision-making, relationships and self-discovery. Piaget’s stages emanated from research and observation while in Erikson’s case it came from experience. Since Erickson is from the psychoanalyst school of thought, he points out that the ego changes constantly altering the individual’s personality. Piaget solely focuses on changes in his theory of four stages, totally ignoring ego in his analysis. Erikson uses the social setting as the bases of his theory. Piaget bases his theory on the assumption of a child’s senses and capability as determinants of development.

Erikson dwelled on personality development; thus, he used observation, clinical methods and questions to conclude. Piaget focused on cognitive development through mental processes, where he asked questions and then followed up by other questions. Through his studies, Piaget theorized the manner in which children formed thoughts.

The theories also contrast in the manner in which they view the stages. According to Piaget, a person may not necessarily go through all phases of his theory; an individual influences their world. Experiences determine development in Piaget’s theory while to Erikson going through all the stages up to old age is seen as essential in explaining the development process.

Similarities

Both of these theories examine the issue of developmental psychology using phases to explain the process. Each of the theories posits that each stage has different challenges in the development process. Thus, successive stages build upon each other to the extent that failure in the preceding stage also precipitates failure in the next stage.

The two theories build on the idea that personality development takes place across a person’s lifespan. Therefore, individuals get inspiration from the surroundings through the learning process. In turn, cognition influences the person to leave a mark in the society and enjoy success. They are also similar on their emphasis on scientific method of enquiries through controlled experiments of a laboratory investigation. Both of the theories have a profound impact on society, especially in early childhood education. However, the integration of the two provides better answers to psychologists and educators on the best way to teach young children.

Early Childhood, Adolescence and Their Significance

Early childhood and adolescence are significant stages for individuals, where they grow physically to attain some form of independence. Cognitive development also takes place with language being understood in the early years while abstract thinking occurs at adolescence. Social development and emotional expressions also accompany people in development while security and safety at younger ages leads to a better outlook on the surroundings (Rathus 507).

Conclusion

Piaget and Erikson contributed a lot in the field of development psychology. Though drawing inspiration from diverse sources in the 20th century, their contributions cannot be ignored despite the time gap. In conclusion, the paper highlighted similarities as well as differences between the two stages. Stages were the main focal points of the theories with each preceding stage unique from the next.

Works Cited

Rathus, Spencer. Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development. New York: Centage learning, 2010. Print

Smart, Julie. Disability across the Development Life Span. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 2011. Print Snowman, Jack et al. Psychology Applied to Teaching. New York: Centage learning. 2011. Print

0 Anton Chekhov

Introduction

Anton Chekhov, a Russian writer, is one of the main dramatists and writers of short-stories in history. His total number of works summed up to about six hundred stories and seventeen plays. Apart from being considered one of the most prominent figures of literature, Chekhov secured the Pushkin Prize. He more often than not combined components of both tragedy and comedy in his writing. Chekhov had a remarkable talent for investigating human conditions with skillfulness and elegance. This paper will look at events in his life time as well as some of his popular works.

Chekhov’s Life

The author Anton Pavlovich Chekhov was born in Ukraine in the year 1860 on the 17th day of January in the small seaport of Taganrog. He is recalled as a dramatist and one of the legends of the short stories in modern day. Chekhov’s father was a grocer while his grandfather was a serf. His grandfather ensured they lived an independent life by buying his family’s freedom about 19 years before he was given born. In the early years of his life, Chekhov spent nearly all his time working in his father’s grocery store while following the religious devotion of his father.

He pursued his early education at a school made for boys of the Greek community where he lived from 1867 to 1868 (Rayfield 210). Later when his father broke, and his family moved to Moscow, he continued with his education at the local grammar school from 1868 to 1876. Chekhov continued to live where he was born by supporting himself through tutoring. Later on, he turned out to be a doctor after enrolling as a medical student in the Moscow University Medical School. Many of his writing works encompass science and medical knowledge as depicted by the lethargy most of his characters show in regard to events that are tragic.

While pursuing his education in the medical school, Chekhov started to bring out his comical short stories. The money he got from publishing his short stories was used by himself and his family upbringing. By the year 1886, Chekhov had become a prominent writer as a result of his works. His works were published in a number of papers in St. Petersburg such as Peterburskaia gazeta as of 1885, and Novoe vremia beginning 1886. In addition, during this period, Chekhov also published two novels that were complete, one being, "The Shooting Party," which was English translated in 1926.

In 1884, Chekhov graduated from the school of medicine and later carried out medicine up to the year 1892. His writing skills were significantly enhanced during this period when he was actively participating in the profession of medicine. Moreover, it was at this time that he made enormous literary contributions to St. Petersburg daily Novoe vremya. His works were heavily criticized but at the same time praised by authors like Nikolai Leskov and Leo Tolstoy. Consequently, in the year 1888, Chekhov won the Pushkin Prize. The Society of Lovers of Russian Literature elected him as a member in 1889.

1889 saw him get away from literature for a while when his play, “The Wood Demon”, was not a success. He returned to practicing medicine in the north of Siberia, at a place called Sakhalin. While in, Sakhalin, Chekhov examined prisoners numbering ten thousand who were condemned to life imprisonment as part of his medical exploration. After completing his investigation, he travelled to various destinations of the world including India, Middle East, and South East Asia. He became a full time writer in 1892 after he had bought land and settled in Melikhove. Some of his works that are mostly remembered were published during this time. His more popular stories such as “Lady with the Dog,” were written in 1897 when he moved to Yalta after succumbing to tuberculosis.

In 1901, Chekhov entered into a marital union with Olga Knipper, a lady who formed part of his cast in a number of plays. Olga mostly performed in the plays when Chekhov was in Crimea and Moscow working and treating his health, which was already, deteriorating. Chekhov and his wife had their last performance together during his last birthday in January 17, 1904, with Olga taking the leading role in the play (Rayfield 660). After six month, Chekhov’s health became unbearable, and finally died in July 1904 in Germany.

Chekhov’s Works

The Lady with the Dog

“The Lady with the Dog” was at first published in the year 1899. The story is about an adulterous relationship involving a banker from Russia and a young lady he bumps into while in Yalta during his vacation. The story brings into focus: the first meeting in Yalta, the satisfying completion of the relation and the remaining time in Yalta, the banker’s return to Moscow and a visit to the young lady’s town, and the lady’s Moscow visit (Chekhov 91). Chekhov expresses emotional intricacy using few words, therefore, safeguarding strength of the feelings of his characters. Additionally, he uses colors to pass on both the feelings of characters and altering spirits, as it moves from overly imposing to subdued and banal.

Three Sisters

This play concentrated on the fortunate Russian classes’ rotting and looks for denotation in the contemporary world. The story portrays the way of life and ambitions of the Prozorov family, Olga, Masha, Irina (the three sisters) and Andrei, their brother. The members of the Prozorov family are displeased and disturbed with their current way of life. The sisters were brought up in urban Moscow and are sophisticated and cultured; nonetheless they have been residing in a little provincial town (Chekhov 121). Chekhov drew inspiration from the three Bronte sisters’ life story. The girls associate Moscow with their happy state, and it signifies a life that is perfect. Their dreams diminish because Moscow does not happen.

The Boor

“The Boor” is a play about feelings and commitment’s unpredictability. The story tells of a faithful woman who despite her husband’s death still remains faithful. She, however, becomes annoyed after finding out that her husband, whom she had been faithful to all her life, had been unfaithful. Despite the revelation, she still remains faithful to her husband by staying in her home without visitors. Her way of life makes Mr. Smirnov fall in love with her despite occasions of duel, confrontation, and insults. She is unable to pay her husband’s debt, which Mr. Smirnov, wants paid. This situation makes her end the home imprisonment of self and the start of a new life (Chekhov 45). Life ironies are investigated in this story.

The Seagull

“The Seagull” is a story with a setting in the countryside of Russian at the last part of 19th century. The characters in the “The Seagull” are frustrated with how their lives are. Some want love, others success, others want to be skilled artists. Nonetheless, none of the characters seem to become happy. Most of the characters find themselves in devastating, three person relationships that cause both sorrow and comedy (Chekhov 161).

Conclusion

Though a renowned individual, by the Russian scholarly public, at his death, Chekhov remained globally unknown until after the 1st World War. This was when his compositions were translated into English. Additionally, he wrote many stories due to his speedy writing. Chekhov supposed believed the darker side of the plays should not overshadow the hilarious parts, which permeate even in moments that are dark. This writing style contributes to both theatre and literature.

Works Cited

Chekhov, A. Stories of Anton Chekhov. New York: Modern Library, 2000. Print.

Rayfield, D. Anton Chekhov: A Life. Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 2000. Print.

Research Articles Digest

Friday, 20 July 2012

0 Effective Teamwork in Organizations

0 LEONARDO DA VINCI

0 Thomas Jefferson's View on Slavery

0 Comparing and Contrasting Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson Work on Child Psychology

0 Anton Chekhov

0 Toyota Production System

0 Self Configuring Wireless Sensor Networks

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