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Friday, 20 July 2012

0 Comparing and Contrasting Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson Work on Child Psychology

Introduction

Development psychology has undergone many changes since the beginning of the 20th century. Most early theorists influenced the field of psychology significantly. Notable theorist whose impact determines child psychology and early childhood education are Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson. This paper delves into the contribution of these two theorists in their study of various development stages, the differences and similarities in their theories and significance of these stages.

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

The theory proposed by Piaget focuses on the various stages of a child where transition from one stage to the other follows a sequence. He developed the stages with key ideas as his building blocks. It is necessary to look into the concepts that form the bases of his theory. Firstly is the issue of schemata that he conceptualized as the mental structure that represents the world. Through the learning process, children change their schemata by adapting, due to assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation adds new information to the existing schemata while adaptation modifies new information into the schemata. Ideally, there is balance between assimilation and accommodation to ensure equilibrium.

From the above ideas, he developed the four stages through observation of children. He believed all children passed through the stages sequentially throughout their lifetime. The stages are divided based on age and abilities accompanying them. He divided the stages into four (Snowman et al 33).

Sensorimotor stage: This represents the period from infancy and up to two years of age. At this period, movement and application of senses takes place. Additionally, mental images begin to form while images of objects remain engrained in the child’s mind.

Preoperational period: It takes place between two and seven years where symbolic thoughts develop. Reasoning is nonetheless shallow. Measurement abilities are equally low even when features of objects change.

Concrete stage: Children between the ages of seven to eleven learn to reason and perform mental problems on numbers; the children also look into problems from different perspectives and can reverse activities mentally.

Formal operation stage: It occurs from eleven years of age to adulthood. Abstract thinking takes center stage. Similarly, in this stage hypothesis formation and deduced reasoning become easier to understand.

Eric Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory

He developed his theory much later than Piaget did, but he also dealt in development with eight unique stages across the life of a person. New hurdles characterized each stage; the way the person deals with hurdles at a stage determines the aftermath. Consequently, naming of the stages occurred with the likely outcomes in mind. The stages include:

Trust vs. mistrust: Occurs in children below the age of one. The theory posits that, in this stage, the infant is totally dependent on parents and caregivers. Thus, trust is established when the infant feels safe under care; likewise mistrust occurs when safety is minimal. Mistrust and minimal attachment of the child also creates an environment of fear.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Takes place between one and three years of age. The child develops some sense of independence through learning basic life skills. When children accomplish the purpose of the stage they feel secure. Failure, on the other hand, leads to self-doubt and insecurity.

Initiative vs. Guilt: Takes place between three and six years of age, children become aware of the social environment. Social settings affect the children to exert authority when opportunity is provided.

Industry vs. Inferiority: It covers the ages of six to twelve; competition with fellow children brings out the abilities and skills of the children. A feeling of competency for the victors follows while feelings of doubts linger on the minds of unsuccessful children.

Identity vs. Confusion: The period coincides with the onset of adolescence up to young adulthood. An individual forms an identity, understands his/her role in society and experiences a sense of direction in life. Those who do not succeed emerge bruised with feelings of insecurity of the future.

Intimacy vs. Isolation: Relationships are significant factors for the success of individuals; success depends on healthy and secure relationships. Lack of identity leads to lower self-esteem and higher rates of depression (Snowman et al. 29).

Generativity vs. stagnation: In adulthood, people are productive in their lives through family, work and career. Success in this stage exudes feelings of accomplishment to the society. Failure leads to stagnation in life and unproductive lives.

Integrity vs. Despair: Eric’s last stage deals with the period of old age, people look back into their lives, and accomplishment during one’s life brings bout feelings of contentment while failure leads to disappointment at the wasted opportunities. Additionally, satisfaction follows those who have accomplished their life long wishes (Snowman et al. 30).

Differences

Erik’s theory focuses on the entire development process in life in eight stages. He asserts that the environment interacts with an individual to influence the development. In each of the phases, one encounters crisis and success depends on how he handles the challenges. Skills acquired in progression to another stage lessen insecurity in the individual. These challenges occur in the lifespan from infancy to older age of an individual. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development looks into thought processes of a person. His emphasis is mainly in the earlier stages below the age of twelve. Development of cognitive skills occurs from infancy to the operational phase (above 12 years of age) where abstract thoughts make sense. Naming of the stages represents the cognitive skill attained in the child and adult. Despite the use of stages, they both differ on the timing aspect; Erikson’s theory holds that the first stage ends at one year old while Piaget postulates that the first stage ends at two years of age.

Erikson draws inspiration from the psychoanalytic school of thought as earlier espoused by Freud (Smart 79). His theory came into being later than Piaget’s; Erikson added more ideas to Freud’s theory, that the environment determined personality in individuals. Erikson recognized the significance of sense, autonomy versus shame and doubt provides a compelling example of this. The child uses symbols to represent people and places. Challenges are bound to occur in every stage in Erikson’s theory; in contrast, Piaget focus ends in adulthood while assuming the advent of old age.

Their views on the development process show remarkable differences in the late teens. Piaget views an adolescent as a rational being with rational thoughts. Erik posits that at this stage, the teenager focuses on independence in decision-making, relationships and self-discovery. Piaget’s stages emanated from research and observation while in Erikson’s case it came from experience. Since Erickson is from the psychoanalyst school of thought, he points out that the ego changes constantly altering the individual’s personality. Piaget solely focuses on changes in his theory of four stages, totally ignoring ego in his analysis. Erikson uses the social setting as the bases of his theory. Piaget bases his theory on the assumption of a child’s senses and capability as determinants of development.

Erikson dwelled on personality development; thus, he used observation, clinical methods and questions to conclude. Piaget focused on cognitive development through mental processes, where he asked questions and then followed up by other questions. Through his studies, Piaget theorized the manner in which children formed thoughts.

The theories also contrast in the manner in which they view the stages. According to Piaget, a person may not necessarily go through all phases of his theory; an individual influences their world. Experiences determine development in Piaget’s theory while to Erikson going through all the stages up to old age is seen as essential in explaining the development process.

Similarities

Both of these theories examine the issue of developmental psychology using phases to explain the process. Each of the theories posits that each stage has different challenges in the development process. Thus, successive stages build upon each other to the extent that failure in the preceding stage also precipitates failure in the next stage.

The two theories build on the idea that personality development takes place across a person’s lifespan. Therefore, individuals get inspiration from the surroundings through the learning process. In turn, cognition influences the person to leave a mark in the society and enjoy success. They are also similar on their emphasis on scientific method of enquiries through controlled experiments of a laboratory investigation. Both of the theories have a profound impact on society, especially in early childhood education. However, the integration of the two provides better answers to psychologists and educators on the best way to teach young children.

Early Childhood, Adolescence and Their Significance

Early childhood and adolescence are significant stages for individuals, where they grow physically to attain some form of independence. Cognitive development also takes place with language being understood in the early years while abstract thinking occurs at adolescence. Social development and emotional expressions also accompany people in development while security and safety at younger ages leads to a better outlook on the surroundings (Rathus 507).

Conclusion

Piaget and Erikson contributed a lot in the field of development psychology. Though drawing inspiration from diverse sources in the 20th century, their contributions cannot be ignored despite the time gap. In conclusion, the paper highlighted similarities as well as differences between the two stages. Stages were the main focal points of the theories with each preceding stage unique from the next.

Works Cited

Rathus, Spencer. Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development. New York: Centage learning, 2010. Print

Smart, Julie. Disability across the Development Life Span. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 2011. Print Snowman, Jack et al. Psychology Applied to Teaching. New York: Centage learning. 2011. Print

0 Social Disorganization

Introduction

In this paper, the proponent tries to elaborately discuss the following questions. What is social disorganization? How does social disorganization relate to organized crime and its evolution? How well does social disorganization meet the criteria for organized crime and its various relationships? What is the correlation of corrupt political machines and social disorganization to the development of organized crime?

Social disorganization defined

In social organization, everybody has the ability to come up with shared values or beliefs. Thus, in the case of social disorganization, there is a tendency that an individual’s action associates with law-violating behavior that in one way or another complexly organized or unorganized (Lyman & Potter, 2007; Mallory, 2007). To cite an instance, the case of gang culture could remarkably deviate from the prevailing order within the society. Within the gang culture, it could be evident that in one way or another, there is a presence of leadership that is either organized or unorganized. There might be order within this culture, but from the point of view of the society, there is a deviation from the actual law enforced by the people. It is in this case that one could link the case of gang culture with social disorganization.

Social disorganization, organized crime and its evolution

At this point it is important to understand how does social disorganization relate to organized crime and its evolution. Again, one substantial case that could explicate this point is gang culture. Gangs have substantive culture that within it there is a great presence of shared values and beliefs. What makes this shared values and beliefs became a success is the point in which gangs have remarkably hired new set of members and flourish due to unsuccessful prosecution effort and even worst, becoming legitimate business (Lyman & Porter, 2007). All of these could remarkably start within street gangs. The evolution is so tough, but the bottom line paves the way for organizing street gangs into something vibrant readily associated with business that could also interconnect with corrupt officials, which eventually strengthens them further to become established crime groups.

Relationship between social disorganization and organized crime

As already stated, social disorganization could evolve and become established organized crime. Eventually social disorganization meets the criteria of organized crime because just like the latter, it is completely against the prevailing values and set standard by the society through the prevailing law emancipated for the protection of everybody’s freedom or right. Law-breaking behavior is generally present within the context of social disorganization and ultimately street gangs could evolve as groups that would have fundamental association with corrupt officials leading to their social, economic and political power. Due to these fundamental reasons, there is not doubt that social disorganization such as in the case of gang culture eventually meets the criteria for organized crime. In fact, its evolution substantially completes the achievement of these criteria.

Corrupt political machine and social disorganization

As already stated, a full-pledged or grown up group of street gangs eventually make it a point to consider undertaking maximum gain through establishing a business for the survival of the group and maximum benefits of each member. However, along the way, social disorganization such as in the case of street gangs and their evolution would try to make it a point to maximize the achievement of relevant gains for the benefits of their groups. In reality, they have close tie or connection with corrupt officials (Lyman & Porter, 2007). In other words, the more there will be corrupt officials, social disorganization continues to prevail and even continue to move in an upward spiral. It is due to the fact that the presence of these corrupt political machines creates the competitive advantage of social disorganization and even vice versa. For instance, the achievement of goals on the part of social disorganization lies on the kind of tie up they have. Having connection with political officials is an advantage as they might have enough and relevant control over public domain and resources. Therefore, when corrupt political machine and social disorganization would be in unity, substantial outcome would be evident especially in the achievement of both political and economic gains.

Conclusion

As discussed, social disorganization and organized crime may turn out having the same economic, social and political objectives. In reality, street gangs could eventually evolve to something to something big as organized crime as corrupt political machine enters into its growth. It would mean sustainability on the part of social disorganization, and a remarkable strength on corrupt political machine to help perpetuate its social, economic and political power. Therefore, understanding organized crime from the point of view of corrupt political machine and established social disorganization could substantially pave the way for understanding specific aspect about crime.

References Lyman, M. D., & Potter, G. W. (2007). Organized crime (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Mallory, S. L. (2007). Understanding organized crime. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

0 Happiness in Marriage

Introduction

A modern vision of marriage has essentially changed nowadays. There is no more a high social value of marriage and it is not an obligatory part of life of the contemporaries. This research paper determines the role of modern marriage. On the basis of three main explanatory variables, such as the general happiness of the individuals in the marriage, family satisfaction and family’s total income, a relation between the concepts of love, intimacy, property and happiness in marriage is defined. There are also nine variables, such as condition of health, the financial satisfaction of the couple, children in the family or a childfree family, a possible cheating of spouses, the level of education of the spouses, a level of self-satisfaction in the family, financial ability to have more children and the way it affects on the family, legal marital status of the couple are taken into account. Thus, whether it is possible to be happy in modern marriage is an interesting question…

Literature review

Laura Kipnis underlines that a modern marriage is based on societal bounds more than on feelings or emotions. Moreover, a modern marriage should be interpreted in wider terms, because it is available for people of different sexual orientation (Kipnis, 2006). The government has a right to take control over a family and married couples, because “basic repression is necessary for any civilization to survive (Kipnis, 2006). Therefore, the issues of social status and political relation between a family and the government cannot be underestimated.

Happiness in marriage, with respect to Kipnis, can be explained in the following way: “Marriage exerts influence on love in order to "maximize submission and minimize freedom" (Kipnis 2006, p. 53). Issues of property or financial satisfaction from marriage can be interpreted in a different manner, in comparison with how it was interpreted many years ago. Nowadays in Australia there is a chance to meet couples, which do not have money for their common mansion and they live alone (Csencsitz, 2008).

Thus, Susan Maushart is focused on the issues of property and marriage. A modern family, technology, politics and many other external factors play a very important role. The same fact is underlined by Marilyn Yalom in her book “The History of the Wife”, where she specifies a changing role of a woman in the society and in the family (Yalom and Carstensen, 2002). There is a great challenge before modern women: they want to be happy and to be loved in their families, but at the same time, they do not want to give up their careers. Therefore, in order to be happy, a modern woman should try on different roles: "the wife can learn a great deal from the mistress" (Shumway, Sterling, Kimball, Korinek, and Arredondo, 2007).

Generally speaking, there is a great imbalance between relations of modern men and women in the society and this tendency is evident in marriages: “couples will be equal within the relationship-always a difficult goal in a sexist society-and also that they maintain a delicate balance between autonomy and fusion” (Hawkins, Wardle, and Coolidge, 2007). Condition of health of spouses can be interpreted in the following way: in case an individual loves and works, he is a happy one. This hypothesis was suggested by the Great Fraud and it still work in the modern context (Spurlock 2005, p. 290).

A level of self-satisfaction in the family is rather difficult issue, because a great deal of a positive emotional charge of both spouses depends on intimacy. Intimate relations in modern marriages are often controversial and a personal feeling of satisfaction is often gone from the hearts of the spouses. Helen Fisher (2004) and Shumway et al underline that there is a direct relation between intimacy and marriage. A feeling of passion, physical attraction and many other components of intimate life are integrative elements of a happy life in marriage. Children in the family is another crucial issue, because some modern families do not want to have children and live alone for their own needs and interests, and some couples are longing for having children, but they do not have either physical or financial resources. At this point, intentions of both spouses concerning children should be correlated and only mutual deicision will bring in a felling of happiness in marriage.

Concerning legal status of modern marriages and the issues of legal protection of a family’s property, it can be said that modern laws protect “married woman’s property rights and earnings” (Yalom & Carstensen 2002, p. 23). In the modern context the issues of property, love and intimacy cannot be separated and these are three basic elements of a modern marriage, which is defined as “the institution through which people join together their lives in emotional and economic ways through forming a household. It often confers rights and obligations with respect to raising children, holding property, sexual behavior, kinship ties, tribal membership, relationship to society, inheritance, emotional intimacy and love” (Shumway, Sterling, Kimball, Korinek, and Arredondo, 2007).

Hypothesis: it is possible to suggest that the modern spouses are independent individuals, which want to be together. The concepts of love and intimacy play a crucial role in marriage, but the issues of property or any other financial concerns are challenging for the modern couples. Financial health of a family determines all potential activities and plans of its members, such as having children, mansion, living a stable life et cetera. Marriage concerns social, economical, emotional and psychological factors determining life of spouses. Happy relations in marriage depend on the ability of both spouses to make equal contribution in emotional and financial gains. The modern spouses have their rights and obligations, but in but a constant economical risk is present. Very often financial concerns destroy modern marriages and property arrangements are very popular nowadays. It does not mean that modern people are more pragmatic, than they used to be many years ago, it simply means that marriage in the modern context is a partnership and not oppression. To make common decisions, to have a joint property, to be more tangible in personal relations, guarantees equality, satisfaction and happiness in marriage, because it is a product of two spouses and both of them are responsible for making equal contributions in this risky affair.

Works cited Csencsitz, Cassandra. Who’s Afraid of Modern Marriage? American Theatre, 25 (October 2008): 14+.

Hawkins, Alan J., Lynn D. Wardle, and David Orgon Coolidge, eds. Revitalizing the Institution of Marriage for the Twenty-First Century: An Agenda for Strengthening Marriage. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002. Questia. Web. 20 June, 2012.

Kipnis, Laura. "Something's Missing." Women's Studies Quarterly 34.3/4 (2006): 22+.Questia. Web. 20 June, 2012.

Maushart, Susan. The Winter of our Disconnect. (December 30, 2010). Web. 20 June, 2012.

Shumway, Sterling T., Thomas G. Kimball, Alan W. Korinek, and Rudy Arredondo. "A Family Systems-based Model of Organizational Intervention." Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 33.2 (2007): 134+. Questia. Web. 20 June, 2012.

Spurlock, John C. "Modern Love: Romance, Intimacy, and the Marriage Crisis."Journal of Social History 39.1 (2005): 287+. Web. 20 June, 2012.

Yalom, Marilyn, and Laura L. Carstensen, eds. Inside the American Couple: New Thinking/New Challenges. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002.Questia. Web. 20 June, 2012.

0 Differential Association Theory: Defining the Root of Violent Crimes

Abstract

The complexities of the society over the years paved way for social problems such as crimes and violence in the community. This study opted to explain violent crimes by going through the complexities of the definition and going through a theory that defines the mere presence of such social deviances. The differential association theory is tackled along the content of this study to have better understanding of why violent crimes still arises against the strong will of the society to have it fully wiped of the system. At the end of the study is a suggestion that the author deems necessary to help reduce if not totally eradicate presence of crimes in the community.

Key words: violent crimes, differential association theory, social deviance, society

Differential Association Theory: Defining the Root of Violent Crimes

Everybody dreams of a perfectly safe world to live in, a world free from suffering and harm inflicted by the many violent acts of man against each other. The road to freedom from violence and crime still travels a rough and tough path since the start of civilization. The question still remains until now if are we living against a violent world or has the world changed to a safe place to live in? Today people are aware of the violence around the community through the many forms of news expressed in tabloids, media and even the internet. Every time people open the television for news, most often headlines always comprises of crimes and violence such as killings in many forms. Or when people reads newspapers there has been no newspaper published in the history of publications that does not contain crime against people such as robbery. Not to mention the vast information loaded in the internet with sites, blogs and addresses that explicitly spreads the presence of violence and crime such as rape and homicide. The world indeed is as always a wonderful complicated place to live in. Many efforts have been exerted to make living among the human populace as peaceful and harmonious as ever despite the differences in culture and beliefs. But somehow those efforts made to secure the environment have evolved and indeed the world we have now is so far the greatest violence-fighting-society man has become. Equal laws were promulgated and are implemented among the society that ensures penalty that would suffice a violation made against the law and the lawful right of another person.

And to better understand the nature of these hostile unnatural acts of man, that have violated the rights of many people, is to go over not just by definition but to go thru various studies made. To go over the complexities of violent crime is to understand the way it should be treated and prevented as well as if time and chances permit that it happens to a person, his knowledge about crimes could be the best defense.

Violent crimes are violations of criminal law that involves the unintentional use of violence by one person against another. Criminologists favor narrow definitions of violence focusing on physical harm or threats. Another definition of violence according to the National Research Council is that these are behaviors by individuals that intentionally threaten, attempt, or inflict physical harm on others (Rosenfeld 2010). This definition includes a wide array of behaviors including homicide, assault, robbery, rape, torture and capital punishment but it excludes many acts that are encompassed by other reasonable definitions (Rosenfeld 2012). Although many authors sought to define violent crimes in many context somehow the definition encompasses the same definition if all summed up together. In that similar note, in the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program, violent crime is composed of four offenses: murder and non negligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. According to this UCR, violent crimes as those offenses which involve the use of force or threat of force in executing a certain behavior (federal Bureau of Investigation 2009). According to Lassieur (2012) it feels like violent crime is everywhere that stories of gang shootings, knife fighting, drug-related violence or armed robbery is being heard and seen every day.

Despite the obvious and alarming presence of violence in the community, for most people violent crime is not part of a day-to-day life. Very few people are really unfortunate enough to be a victim or a witness to violence. But even though violence does not happen to a person it does not necessarily mean that violence does not affect him nor have little impact on the safety of the whole community. The mere presence of violence affects everybody’s way of life. According to Lassieur (2012) the presence of scanners in buildings upon entering and not to mention the security people that have the power to go over through peoples stuff before letting them inside a secured vicinity. Or have people noticed the bars commonly placed in houses, schools and every buildings window. These security measures are so commonplace that people does not notice the presence of these measures but all these stuff are there because of the threat of violent crime that can happen anytime (Lassieur 2012).

There are actually experts that formulated theories that explain the presence of violent crimes in the community. One of the most famous theories in the field of crime theories is the one formulated by Edwin Sutherland famously known in the field of criminology as the differential association theory. From the concept formulated by Sutherland, he is trying to explain why crimes happen in the society. Sutherland formulated that the normative conflict is the root cause of crimes in the society. Sutherland Explains that crimes arises not from factors such as age, gender and ethnicity but rather arises from normative conflicts. To explain further, according to Sutherland with the industrial revolution modern industrial societies developed with advance division of labor, market economies and increased conflicts. Such societies become segmented into groups that conflict over basic interest, values, and behavior patterns thus they tend to have higher rates of crime. From these observations, Sutherland hypothesized that high crime rates are rooted in normative conflict in which he defines as a society segmented into groups that conflict over the definition of appropriate behavior (Matsueda 2000). Hence it is stated that the higher the conflict the higher the crime rate present in the community.

Differential association theory was Sutherland’s major sociological contribution to criminology. This theory together with other criminal theories explains deviance in terms of the individual’s social relationships (Sutherland 1939 as cited by Hermida).

According to the differential Association Theory criminal behavior is learnable and learned in interaction with other deviant persons. Through this association, they learn not only techniques of certain crimes, but also specific rationale, motives and so on. These associations vary in frequency, duration. Differential association theory explains why any individual forwards toward deviant behavior. This assertion is most useful when explaining peer influences among deviant youths or special mechanism of becoming certain criminal (Hermida). By virtue of this theory it is believed that a person is prone to committing criminal acts by influence of the people mostly around him. In other words, criminal behavior emerges when one is exposed to more social messages favoring criminal conduct than pro-social messages (Hermida). Somehow there is a degree of dissociation among a deviant person that even something is wrongly done the repeated exposure to presence or commitment of the wrong act makes an impression that it is a normal behavior that is okay to be committed.

Differential association is a learning theory which focuses on the processes by which individuals come to commit criminal acts (Hamlin 2006). This explains the possibility of a person having to commit a crime against another person even if they are aware that the wrongful acts entail certain degree of sanction. Differential association suggests that person socialized in disorganized neighborhoods is likely to have associations that will encourage criminal adaptations (Hamlin 2006).

Sutherland was able to formulate nine principles of Differential Association Theory. According to this principle criminal behavior is learned behavior. This simply states that nobody was born a criminal because naturally men are born with innate goodness. Criminal acts therefore arise from experiences along man’s journey aggravated by many factors such as poverty, revenge and the likes and are most likely gained through interaction with other people (Hermida; Hamlin 2006).

Another principle is that principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. This suggests that indirect influences such as newspapers, movies, and other media play an unimportant part in a person’s commission of criminal act (Hermida; Hamlin 2006).

Furthermore the principle states that when criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques, motives and attitudes of committing the crime. In addition, the process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. Negatively, this means that the learning of criminal behavior is not restricted to the process of imitation. A person who is seduced, for instance, learns criminal behavior by association, but this would not be ordinarily described as imitation (Hermida; Hamlin 2006).

Lastly, a criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values the same way non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values. For example robbers generally steal in order to secure money, but likewise honest laborers work in order to make money (Hermida; Hamlin 2006).

With these entire in mind, one can conclude that criminal acts and violence originated from the same society that defies them. Violent crimes are products of conflicting behavior and beliefs and such conflicts should not arise if only understanding is of the value. In order for crime rates to decrease society must be able to address conflicting behavior between its specialized sectors. The differential Association theory highly suggest that criminal acts are products of felt deviant behavior against a person and somehow brings it back to the society in a form of a crime. For example, bullying in school leads to violent behavior that ended into shoot outs that has ended lives of many students that happened multiple times just recently because the proprietor of the crime thinks everyone in school laughs at him thus he took revenge. Since behavior is highly suggested to be the very essence of why people engage in certain activity, hostile and other socially deviant behavior such as bullying, superiority, gender inequality and other minor social deviance should be addressed in order to contain the conflict that may arise to greater conflicts such as crimes. In lieu of this the society must be of great watch to the societal deviation present in the community. Such as in school, bullying as the most common social deviant should be addressed properly by authorities to contain and suppress the issue through positive activities that would entail camaraderie, equality and brotherhood among members of the society.

References:

Rosenfeld R. (2010) Violent Crime. Oxford University Press, University of Missouri-St. Louis, 3-16

Lassieur A. (2012) Violent Crime. Capstone Library Unlimited; London. 4-50.

Federal Bureau of Investigation (2009) Violent Crime. Crime in the United States. United States Department of Justice.

Matsueda R. (2000) Differential Association Theory. University of Washington Seattle. 125-129

Hamlin J. (2006) Differential Association Theory: Sociological Theories of Deviance.

Hermida J. (2012) Differential Association Theory. Algoma University, Department of Law and Politics; Canada.

0 Trans theoretical Model of Exercise Behavior Change and Its Adherence: A Critical Analysis

Introduction:

Behaviour change exercises for better health is a vast field of study which has been a subject matter for researchers and investigators over the years. It is for this reason that a number of interventions and exercises in health management were originated for and based on the theoretical models. Among different models of physical activities, transtheoretical model for behaviour change has been considered as an effective and systematic model with a pragmatic approach. This paper aims to present an in-depth analysis of the transtheoretical model of behaviour change (TTM). The analysis will be done by giving important consideration to the critical address to the model as an application for modification of healthy behaviour among people. The paper shall also discuss the problems associated with the adherence of the TTM based interventions or exercise for the need of better behavioural change.

Generalities of Transtheoretical Model of Behavioural Change:

A number model has been drawn specifically in order to illustrate the ways in which behavioural change within an individual is more likely to be noted. The origination of the model was done by the conceptualization by Prochaska and DiClemente in 1983. The conceptualization made use of certain theoretical constructs to make the description of the behavioural changes associated with the modification of healthy behaviour. The difference between transtheoretical model of behaviour change and other approaches is that other approaches have utilized social and biological impact to focus on the behaviour and decision-making. This makes transtheoretical model of behaviour change to be more relevant and specific to human behaviour change (Moran, 2004).

The contribution of Prochaska and DiClemente is basically a sum mixture of different theoretical basis of psychotherapies and models. The generalization on which the transtheoretical model of behaviour change is based is the occurrence of change over the time. The application of the TTM is considered to be effective in case of modification and promotion of healthy activities in the daily routine of humans. It is an obvious fact that humans can gain a great deal of mental stability and behavioural activity by implementation physical exercise. TTM based physical exercise can bring positive change among individuals because of the analytical grounds on which the behaviour change is measured (Carlin, 2009).

Critical Address to TTM:

As per the grounds of the model, it has been noted that the behavioural change can occur in five categorized stages. These stages are noted to be Pre-contemplation stage, contemplation stage, preparation stage, action stage and maintenance stage. The interventions based upon the TTM are required to be tailored as per the analysis of the person’s behavioural stage capacity. This notes that the process of behavioural change can occur from any stage but with a pace of process which is systematic. This makes the application of TTM more understandable and effective. In comparison with other models which were created for exercise of behavioural change, it was noted that other models were able to gauge the success of the behavioural change for a certain time of period. It is due to the fact that the adherence to the models other than TTM has been lowered (Biddle & Mutrie, 2008).

The purpose of the establishment of TTM is considered to be the alteration of the smoking cessation. This means that the employment of TTM was initially done for behavioural change among the smokers. Later on, it was noted that TTM can be implemented in altering and designing different exercise for bringing behavioural change. A number of researchers have made use of TTM as a model to promote physical activity among individuals. According to the research by Adams and White (2003), the interventions based upon TTM are most effective among individuals because of the stages of contemplation. The research was mainly conducted by consideration of working papers from the popular medical databases such as Medline and PUB Medical were used. Keywords such as stages of change, activity and exercise were used to find relevant resources for the research. It was noted that consideration of different procedural stages is correct in the form of bringing change for humans in optimal beginning. Different elements and subjects that have been considered by TTM are effective for deploying a physical challenge to the individuals (Adams & White, 2003).

Despite the uniqueness of the TTM, the model has been addressed with a lot of criticism by the researchers. The most common critical address which has been noted to affect model’s application is the conceptual base. In other words, it could be said that the model employs stage-based theories of human behaviour which is considered doubted on the basis of conceptualization. Macnee and McCabe (2004) believe that the analytical tools employed in the model are not effective to measure the change in human behaviour. Such a critical address has been posed to the model because of the consideration of human behaviour as a versatile one which can further be categorized in a number of stages. This is an imperative aspect in the critical address for the model (Buckworth & Dishman, 2002).

As a result of critical addresses that were being posed to TTM, a lot of research was put underway to understand the geniuses of the critical addresses (Hayden, 2009). It was noted as per the research that longitudinal trails made it obvious to understand that interventions based upon TTM are able to make great difference in the physical activities of individuals. It is for this reason that the TTM based interventions was awarded with the Gold Award because of its achievement in bringing behavioural change. This has been noted occasionally that any model is awarded with such a label in health management (Timmins, 2011). It was also noted that the studies which are conducted in order to note the inefficiency of the TTM based intervention lacked consideration of cage behaviour throughout the constructs of TTM. It can also be said that the studies which have been conducted to note the inefficiency of TTM did not employ an effective research method. There were shortcomings of sample size in such studies or the follow-ups to the study remained limited. It should also be noted that the studies were not effective in terms of recruitment rates (Lenio, 2006).

Problem associated with Adherence to Exercise:

As per other critical addresses, it was noted that adherence to the interventions based upon TTM, a large number of individuals were able to manage their stress. The application and adherence to the TTM based intervention has been a very important concern of the physical health promoters. Studies were also conducted to understand the problems with the adherence to the TTM. It was noted that the biggest problem faced by the individuals was lack of self-efficiency (Dishman, Washburn, & Heath, 2007). In other words, it could be said that lowered adherence of individuals with the TTM based interventions could be lowered self-efficiency. Self-efficiency is basically defined as a behavioural character which notes that a person should be able to build his or her viewpoint regarding the act to bring behavioural change. Self-efficiency is a tool that helps an individual to understand his or her capacity to bring change in him. It will not be incorrect to state that a person with high self-efficiency level is able to perform as a defining element of bringing change. A person who is able to understand his capability will surely look ahead to being confident in him even in risk-based situations. Thus, it can be said that if people needs to continue the habit of psychical activity then they must be aware of their self-efficiency levels to ensure physical activities (Howley & Frank, 2007).

Conclusion:

Through the above critical analysis of the transtheoretical model of behavioural change, it can be stated that it is an effective tool to bring behavioural change among individuals. It is a systematic approached model that has a pragmatic approach. A number of critics have claimed that the model is not able to gauge a long term benefits but in comparison with other models of similar kind, it was noted that the stage base processes were more effective in bringing positive behavioural change. Critical studies which were conducted to the review the effectiveness of the TTM based interventions were poorly designed in terms of methodology. Thus, it is for this reason, TTM based model cannot be considered as non-applicable. In fact, the TTM based interventions should be considered as an effective way to bring behavioural change because of its achievement of award in the field of health management. It should also be noted that the interventions based upon the TTM models are becoming a victim of low self-efficiency measure. Individuals who are much aware of their self-efficiency levels are more likely to adhere to the physical exercises based upon TTM in their daily routine.

References List

Adams, J., & White, M. (2003). Are activity promotion interventions based on the transtheoretical model effective? A critical review. International Journal of Human and Social Sciences , 5, 106–114.

Biddle, S., & Mutrie, N. (2008). Psychology of Physical Activity: Determinants, Well-being, and Interventions. Washington DC.: Routledge.

Buckworth, J., & Dishman, R. (2002). Exercise Psychology. New York: Human Kinetics.

Carlin, C. (2009). The Impact of Voluntary Participation in a Community Fitness Center on the Health and Well-being of African American Women Over 40 Years of Age. New York: ProQuest.

Dishman, R., Washburn, R., & Heath, G. (2007). Physical Activity Epidemiology. New York: Human Kinetics.

Hayden, J. (2009). Introduction to Health Behaviour Theory. New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Howley, E., & Frank, B. (2007). Fitness Professional's Handbook. New York: Human Kinetics.

Lenio, J. (2006). Analysis of the Transtheoretical Model of Behaviour Change. Journal of Student Research , 73-85.

Moran, A. (2004). Sport and Exercise Psychology: A Critical Introduction. Washington DC.: Routledge.

Timmins, F. (2011). Contemporary Issues In Coronary Care Nursing. Washington DC.: Routledge.

0 A Comparison of Lichtenstein and Cushman View on What Case Constituted a Constitutional Revolution

After president Roosevelt took power in 1933, he established programs to restore the economy of the United States. This was after the destructive effects of the great depression of United States which began in 1929 (Himmelberg, p14). Just like other countries in the aftermath of the Great Depression, the government embarked on a mission to increase its power and influence by enacting laws to control the economy (Leuchtenburg p213). His programs were collectively called the New Deal.

The New Deal projects by President Roosevelt suffered massive drawbacks at the courts. Most of them were frustrated by the supreme courts issuing verdicts that they were unconstitutional (Himmelberg, p19). The statues and provisions in the new deal programs that were struck down by the courts include the Agricultural Adjustment Act, which supported financially staple farmers, the National Industrial Recovery Act, which approved the cartelization of industries, and the Railroad Retirement Act. According to Leuchtenburg, these sudden changes precipitated a constitutional crisis. They posed a difficult challenge to the conventional dogma of the Supreme Court leading to a constitutional revolution (Leuchtenburg p213).

Frustrated by the courts actions, President Roosevelt reacted by announcing his reorganization of the judiciary. This was infamously known as the “court packing” plan (Mannino, p293). Several writers argue that the courts struck down numerous important laws in the twentieth century. The two pertinent reasons fronted for this precedence were; the laws were hastily and poorly drafted during the emotional hundred days of Roosevelt in office and that they were badly defended in the courts. It must be noted that these two arguments were found with flaws. One law in New York drafted by the best law practitioners in United States was a casualty in this period. This reason amongst others weakened the reasoning held at that time (Leuchtenburg p234).

The court packing plan, for instance, according to Leuchtenburg had frightened the courts and posed a danger to them. This to him might have had some effect relative to jurisprudence.

However, the interpretation of the constitutional revolution in the 1930s is diverse. Several law scholars have cited different Court cases of the twentieth century to support their stand on which case actually represented a constitutional revolution. In this term paper, the cases West Coast Hotel vs. Parrish, argued for by Leuchtenburg and Wickard vs. Filburn argued for by Cushman will be analyzed. As a result, determine which authors interpretations of the cases amount to a revolutionary case.

In the case West Coast Hotel vs. Parrish (1937), the Supreme Court judgment upheld the constitutionality of legislation on minimum wage passed by Washington State. It overturned the trials court decision that was based on the precedent of Adkins vs. Children’s Hospital (Leuchtenburg, p164). This decision is believed to have ended the era in which the Supreme Court had a penchant for quashing legislation intended at regulating enterprise. Leuchtenburg argues that, this case marked a notable divide in the history of the courts. It also had a significant consequence on the destiny of President Roosevelt Court packing plan. In addition, Elsie Parrish case prompted a constitutional revolution in the United States Supreme Court (Leuchtenburg p163). Her case appeared to be heading for defeat since for a decade; the Supreme Court had ruled that a minimum wage act for women was unlawful since it violated the liberty of contract that the Court assumptions were guaranteed by the Constitution.

Against all odds, Elsie Parrish was resolute in her quest for justice. Following the precedent of Adkins, her case was never watertight in the eyes of legal practitioners. Even at the time, the finest law practitioners like Ben Cohen and Felix Frankfurter were very cynical on this case’s conclusion (Leuchtenburg p167). The Tipaldo was another instance that further blurred Elsie Parrish chances. Here the Court had again upheld that the minimum wage laws for women were still unfounded. In an unprecedented twist though, the Tipaldo verdict caused strong criticisms even from some Supreme Court members, notably Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes.

He reprimanded most of the justices who upheld the decision for not being able to recognize that the New York law can be differentiated from the act of Congress declared unconstitutional in Adkins or rather than the state had the authority to safeguard women from being oppressed by unscrupulous employers. The Tipaldo caused resentment among the general populace since the ruling was viewed as curtailing the government authority to reign on dishonest employers thereby leaving its citizens to the vagaries of the same dishonest employers (Leuchtenburg p169).

From its decisions, the Supreme Court clearly showed that it was unsympathetic to social legislation irrespective of whether it originated from a state legislature or Washington. Chief justice Charles Hughes in his written judgment in a 5-4 decision stated that minimum wage law did not infringe the Constitution’s Fourteenth Amendment and that Elsie Parrish was entitled to indemnity. The Due Process Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment provided that no State “shall deny any person of life, liberty or property without due process of the law”. Parrish took legal action against the hotel for the difference between what she was rewarded and the $14.50 per week of 48 hours set as a minimum wage by Industrial Welfare Committee and Supervisor of Women in Industry, under the Washington State law (Leuchtenburg, p164).

To this end, Leuchtenburg believes that “externalist” factors played a major role in constitutional revolution of 1930s. The West Coast Hotel vs. Parrish was a contentious and far-reaching departure to jurisprudence in the 1937. Leuchtenburg henceforth attributed this scenario to political pressure. Though other critique on the case believes that the judgments were passed just before president Roosevelt‘s pronouncement of his plans.

Another reason that Leuchtenburg reaffirm his belief that this case constituted a constitutional revolution is the Justice Owen Roberts dramatic switch, to help constitute a majority that upheld the minimum wage legislation. His move was presumed that he changed position because of the court packing threats by the Roosevelt administration. Justice Roberts also sided with the “Four Horsemen”, in all the cases that they were unified, and more so interestingly in the New Deal cases. During this period, Leuchtenburg asserts that the courts performance signified a slow evolution of legal doctrine but rather to a more liberal view of the control of federal government.

Wickard vs. Filburn was a 1942 verdict of the Supreme Court that acknowledged the power of the national government to control economic activity. By mid-1930s, the Courts had withdrawn its restraint on national government giving it room to gain power hence save capitalism which was under threat after the Great Depression (Mannino p115). Thus during this period, the government encountered less hurdles on its ability to control the economy. Wickard vs. Filburn is an example of a case that highlighted this scenario (Cushman, p215). Roscoe Filburn was a farmer who grew wheat for personal consumption. The government had established restrictions on wheat production depending on land owned by a farmer, to increase wheat prices during the Great Depression. Filburn though, was growing in excess of the restrictions allowed in the Agricultural Adjustment Act’s regulations. This Act set out the quotas on the quantity of wheat put into interstate trade and established punishments for overproduction. Its overall goal was to stabilize market prices of wheat by averting scarcity or excess production.

Before the Courts, Filburn argued that the wheat he grew for personal consumption was beyond the authority of the federal government to control (Mannino, p268). The Federal District court hence ruled in favor of Filburn. On appeal, the Supreme Court’s ruling vindicated the constitutional revolution of the New Deal. Here, the Court prolonged the commerce clause to allow Congress control anything that had a considerable economic outcome on commerce, using the “aggregation” principle. The Supreme Court argued that the possible impact on commerce would not originate from one farmer but also from other farmers in similar circumstances affected commerce (Stephens and Scheb, p155).

The Courts henceforth reaffirmed its withdrawal on legal affirmative position by proclaiming the legislature, and not the judiciary, the last authority of whether a regulation or law was logical. Cushman indeed agrees not less to this conclusion that it instigated the crucial revolution of the constitution. Cushman’s argument is that the constitutional revolution did not take place as the conservative perception would want to recognize it. He believes that the political atmosphere at that time of New Deal laws being upheld by the Courts neither had an effect on the revolution. To him, the 1930s court decisions were rational, logical and honest conclusion of previous improvements in legal doctrine.

Cushman further argues that the legal doctrine should be comprehended as a culmination of legal considerations and not simply several lines or a line of doctrine. He sees as “externalist” the conservative justification of the New Deal influence on constitutional revolution. From his reasoning on the outcome of the Wickard vs. Filburn case, that the notion that the justices reformed under intimidation of president Roosevelt court packing plan is not reasonable (Stephens and Scheb, p154). Also the 1936 landslide re-election victory by Roosevelt was no effect.

In summary, he opines that the manner, in which the laws were written, legal hypothesis and facts deduced in the cases, altogether influenced individual legal perception of justices. This to him was what contributed to the constitutional revolution. In the Wickard decision, Cushman’s investigation of Court papers show how after the 1942 opinion, the justices discussed how additional facts reinforced a finding that the regulation of wheat for home utilization had a considerable effect on interstate commerce (Cushman, p254).

It is true that the 1930s herald a constitutional revolution according to cases deduced by Leuchtenburg and Cushman. There is common ground though on both scholars’ arguments. This common ground is that: they acknowledge that the implication of the constitution changes with time; the reality that Supreme Court justices are unaffected to some extent by political influences and enjoy tenure of service; the power of justices to make ultimate interpretations of the spirit and letter of the constitution; and the supremacy status of the constitution in federal government (Stephens and Scheb p318). The issue of constraint while delivering verdicts is easily an identifiable factor of why these two authors have opposing views on which case constitutes a constitutional revolution. Both of them recognize the significance of constraints on justices as legitimate interpreters of the constitution.

These constraints have been found to guide against the conduct of justices from acquiring tyrannical tendencies (Mannino, p113). Another major importance of this constraint originates from the point that the constitution is the sole authoritative source of law in America. Hence the Supreme Court justices perform a crucial role in construing the constitution and these justices are immune to direct political machination of the government (Stephens and Scheb, p56). However, their main difference stems from why and how the constitutional revolution took place.

In my decision, I find Cushman’s Wickard vs. Filburn case arguments to have convinced me as the best revolutionary case of the 1930s. He tries to detach the actions of the courts to prevailing political situations. Cushman’s detailed jurisprudential investigation of his court case clearly highlights his points. Thereby convincingly lay it bare that the courts own internal factors drove it to make decisions that he billed as meriting constitutional revolution (Himmelberg, p68). To him, constitutional revolutions cannot be merely pegged on political and economic concerns as the principal factors in delivering unprecedented judicial verdicts (Cushman, p279).

He reinforces this fact by showing that the justices enjoy tenure of service. Cushman instills confidence that the courts had no reason to fear President Roosevelt court packing plans since the same plans backfired and were defeated by non partisan opposition in Congress. Cushman shows that the Courts deserted the system of laissez fair jurisprudence as the justices became conscious of the social realities of the time. In the Wickard vs. Filburn, the facts associated with the Great Depression carried the day and the laissez faire legal system suffered a big blow (Cushman p 220).

Another factor that Cushman highlighted here is the manner in which the Supreme Court justices reached their decision. Here the justices reached a unanimous decision. By emphasizing it’s mutually respectful decision making process, the courts showed that its decision should be viewed as a united institutional product rather than shared judgments of individuals. It achieves this by formulating an opinion of the Courts instead of split opinions. Here, Justice Jackson read a unanimous verdict that reasoned that the authority to control the price at which commerce happens was inherent in the authority to control commerce (Stephens and Scheb p231).

Hence they greatly focused on the scrutiny of the legal doctrine as a united team. Their long term aim was to reduce the manifestation of disagreement amidst individuals. Thus dissenting opinions were quashed by this simple logic. By nature of its verdict, Cushman shows that this case relied on the final summative effect of the action instead of its geographical nature. He bases his account on actual case facts, arguments by attorneys and the judge’s opinions.

In contrast, Leuchtenburg believes that constitutional revolution happened abruptly in the 1930s. According to him, the courts made significant rulings within a short period of time that overturned earlier precedents. This short duration that Leuchtenburg suggest as leading to constitutional revolution, by drawing attention to factors that are in their own unprecedented leaves a lot to be desired, more so the political pressure from the Roosevelt administration. His inference that the political pressure generated owing to the effects of the great depression towards the courts was only resolved by jurisprudential shift does not inspire confidence in supporting his reference case (Stephens and Scheb, p331). Thus his suggestions do not seem unique to the history of the courts which had faced similar political pressures. In summary, his arguments do not relate well with the fact that the courts were bound to shift their jurisprudential decisions regardless of President Roosevelt court packing plans which Cushman clearly opines (Himmelberg, p72).

In his case study, Leuchtenburg analyses the possibility that President Roosevelt court packing plans could have had an influence in the constitutional revolution. His inferences show that the justices could have been intimidated to engineer a revolution consciously.

Leuchtenburg account of his court verdict leaves out the significance of legal doctrine. He does not also believe that the statues and provisions could have been incorrectly drafted. In sum, Leuchtenburg inferences from the West Coast Hotel vs. Parrish and other related court judgments of the 1930s could be due to political pressure by the Roosevelt administration. He constructs a notion that the courts yielded to these pressure leading to constitutional revolution. What ails his argument is the time period of these changes.

Moreover, he tries to link the political machinations of the day to the unprecedented short period of the constitutional revolution. For instance, he is swayed by the 1936 election period opinion that the public was largely going to vote a new administration with the directive to restrain the Courts. In summary, I hold that Leuchtenburg example of West Coast Hotel vs. Parrish does not have the threshold to constitute a constitutional revolution merely because of “externalist” influences solely based on political pressure.

Though the stance taken by Leuchtenburg evokes fundamental questions on how an outwardly independent judicial process could succumb to a political pressure within a short period of time, resulting into constitutional revolution, some important “internalist” debate must be considered. It does not go without notice that some judgments actually borrow from the social and economic factors that the law does not necessarily relate to. Hence Cushman presents his arguments regarding legal doctrine of the law. By a large amount, Cushman tries to challenge the popular notion that the Supreme Court during the New Deal period deserted jurisprudential position it had set forth in areas like commerce clause doctrine and due process. He thus differs sharply with Leuchtenburg views of external pressures causing constitutional revolution. Rather his focal point is the internal diversity of the doctrinal development.

Work cited

Cushman, Barry. Rethinking the New Deal court: the structure of a constitutional revolution, New York: Oxford University Press, 1998

Leuchtenburg, William Edward. The Supreme Court reborn: the constitutional revolution in the age of Roosevelt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995

Mannino, Edward F. Shaping America: the Supreme Court and American society: Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 2009.

Himmelberg, Robert F.: The Great Depression and the New Deal: Greenwood Press,: 2001

Stephens Otis H., Scheb John M: American Constitutional Law: Sources of Power and Restraint: Cengage Learning, Feb 7, 2011.

0 The Attachment Theories in Childhood

Introduction

Attachment refers to a lifelong emotional bond between two people, especially affection ties between significant others. Attachment theories spotlight psychological tendency to look for closeness to another person for security, and to experience uneasiness when that person is absent. However, attachment does not have to be necessarily reciprocal. Attachment is exhibited by certain behaviour in children such as seeking proximity with the attachment figure when disturbed or threatened. Attachment theories are useful in the study of infant behaviours as well as in the fields of child health. Attachment theories assume that humans are social beings.

Attachment Theories

The various attachment theories include the cognitive view of attachment, which centres on the contention that infants must develop concepts of object permanence prior to attachment. The approach holds that if children are upset about the absence of the caregivers, they must have perceived that the caregivers continue to exist. The behavioural view of attachment centres on the caregiver as reinforcer. Behaviourists hold that attachment behaviours are learned through conditioning (Gabbard, Judith & Holmes 2007, p.7). The approach stipulates that, in the process of caring for children and provision of physiological needs, the children associate their caregivers with gratification. Therefore, the caregiver becomes a conditioned reinforcer.

The overriding theme in attachment theories is that mothers or caregivers, who are responsible for the provision of various needs to the infants, institute a sense of security in their children (Gabbard, Judith & Holmes 2007, p. 7). As a result, the infants become aware that the caregiver is dependable, which translates into a secure base that allows the child to explore the world.

Psychoanalytic View of Attachment: Caregiver as Love Object

Psychoanalysts perceive the development of attachment entirely different from behaviourist’s point of view. Psychoanalysts perceive the caregiver as a love object who shapes the basis for all later attachments. Nevertheless, psychoanalysts and behaviourists agree that the caregiver’s role in gratifying the child’s needs is paramount. Freud, the pioneer of psychoanalytic theory, held that the emotional attachment of the child to the caregiver arises from the fact that the caregiver is the primary satisfier of the child’s needs (Goldberg, Muir & Kerr 2000, p.46). On the other hand, Erik Erickson holds that the first year is decisive for the child to developing a sense of trust in the caregiver. He also stipulated that the mother’s sensitivity to the child’s needs cultivates development of trust and attachment.

Discussion

John Bowlby (1969) pioneered attachment theory whereby he described attachment as an enduring psychological connectedness between two human beings. Bowlby held that the initial bonds constructed by children with their caregivers’ yield an incredible impact, strong enough to last their entire life. Bowlby also held that the attachment serves to unite the infant with the mother thus enhancing the child’s chances of survival. According to Bowlby, attachment is adaptive, and the finest development of attachment occurs in environments of safety, whereby affect resonance and attachment communications between the child and the caregiver are vital (Goldberg, Muir & Kerr 2000, p.47).

Harlow’s View of Attachment: Caregiver as a Source of Contact and Comfort

Bowlby’s work inspired Harlows’ series of experiments on rhesus monkeys. The psychologist probed the effects of maternal separation and social isolation. The experiments articulated the significance of caregiving and companionship in both cognitive and social development of the child. Harlow also demonstrated that attachment is not entirely based on reliance on food (Goldberg, Muir & Kerr 2000, p.48).

Components of Attachment

Children develop diverse styles of attachment depending on the experiences and interactions they have with their caregivers. Their components of attachment comprise of haven, whereby children find refuge in caregivers whenever they feel threatened or terrified. There is also secure base in which the caregiver offers a safe and dependable platform for the child to explore the environment. Proximity maintenance, on the other hand, revolves around the child always striving to stay close to the caregiver in order to feel safe.

Lastly, separation distress is experienced due to the child’s separation from the caregiver. Alienation of the child from the mother causes disturbance and anxiety. In assessing attachment during childhood, researchers have developed assorted ways of appraising attachment during childhood; they comprise of Strange Situation Protocol and standardized interviews, questionnaires, and tests such as Attachment Story Competition (Bornstein 2008, p.51).

Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation”

Mary Ainsworth expanded upon Bowlby’s work by pioneering studies that revealed the weighty effect of attachment on behaviour. The study centered on children between the ages of 12 and 18 months; children were briefly alienated from their mothers before reunion (Goldberg, Muir and Kerr 2000, p.49).

Attachment Styles in Children

Based on observations made on children behaviours, Ainsworth outlined three significant modes of attachment; secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment. Each of the attachment style reflected certain kinds of attachment relationships between the child and the parents. In 1986, researchers Main and Solomon introduced disorganized- insecure attachment. Ever since Ainsworth’s initial research, most of the studies in this area have affirmed Ainsworth’s attachment styles. Consequently, the studies have also confirmed that the stated attachment styles have a profound effect on behaviours in later life (Mash & Wolfe 2010, p.178).

Characteristics of the Patterns of Attachment

Secure Attachment

Securely attached children display distress when alienated from their caregivers and are pleased when their caregiver returns. The children feel secure in the company of their caregivers and are dependent on the caregivers. A securely attached child explores unreservedly when the caregiver is present and engages with strangers, but is visibly upset when the caregiver departs. Nevertheless, the child is cheerful to see the return of the caregiver.

Departure of the caregiver heralds distress on the children, even though they remain confident that the parent or the caregiver will come back. If threatened, securely attached children seek comfort and reassurance from the caregivers. The provision of assistance reinforces the sense of security in the child and gives the child ideas on how to tackle the difficulty in the future (Mash & Wolfe 2010, p. 179). Securely attached children are aware of a secure base to find shelter in the episodes of rapprochement or times of need. Secure attachment can be described as the most adaptive attachment style.

Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment

Ambivalent attached children habitually become exceedingly distressed when the parent or caregiver leaves. The child is hesitant even with the return of the caregiver. The child also seeks to remain close to the caregiver resentfully. The child also displays resistance when the caregiver initiates attention. Children who exhibit anxious–resistant attachment style are particularly nervous to exploring and anxious when in the company of strangers, irrespective of the presence of the caregiver (Mash & Wolfe 2010, p. 181). Although relatively rare, ambivalent attachment results from poor maternal or caregiver availability. Therefore, ambivalent attached children cannot depend on their parents or caregiver to be available, especially when they are in need.

Anxious-Avoidant insecure Attachment

Avoidant–insecure children usually tend to avoid or ignore the parents or caregivers. The children exhibit modest emotion when the caregiver departs or returns. In addition, the children are unwilling to explore the environment. When offered a choice, children with avoidant attachment do not exhibit any preference between a caregiver and a stranger. Children with anxious-avoidant attachment do not show a lot of emotional range whether in the company of others or not (Mash & Wolfe 2010, p.182).

Research on this topic reveals that the occurrence of this attachment stems from disengaged care giving, and exposure of the child to abuse or neglect by the caregivers. Hence, children who are penalized for depending on parents or caregivers will most likely evade seeking help from the caregivers in the future. This is because the child comes to believe that communication of needs is inconsequential to the parents or caregivers.

Mary Main and Solomon’s Disorganized Attachment

This style of attachment incorporates the deficiency of a reliable style or pattern for coping. Whereas avoidant and ambivalent styles of attachment may fail effective test, the two styles avail strategies for which the child can utilize when dealing with the world. Children who exhibit disorganized attachment view their caregivers as either frightened or frightening. In disorganized attachment, the interactions between the child and the caregiver are normally inconsistent, which precipitate lack of concise interactive templates. Hence, the child is provided with an inconsistent model from which to mirror the self or the situation (Goodyer 2011, p. 36).

Attachment Theory in Clinical Practice

The failure to develop proper attachment with caregivers during childhood may lead to attachment disorders. The resultant disorders may also have adverse effects throughout the lifespan of the individual. Nevertheless, the attachment problems can be resolved through proper therapeutic interventions such as Theraplay. The interventions aid parents as well as children in building healthier interactions and attachment relationships (Bornstein 2008, p.50).

Research done in this area indicates that failure to develop secure attachments early in life exposes the child to negative behaviours manifested in later childhood and throughout life. Many children diagnosed with opposition defiant disorder or posttraumatic stress disorder repeatedly display attachment problems. The insecure attachment may have arisen from the child’s exposure to early abuse, abandonment or trauma. The problems occasioned by insecure attachments have informed clinicians’ assertion that children adopted while six months are predisposed to risk of attachment problems (Goodyer 2011, p. 37).

Key Assumptions of Attachment Theory

Attachment behaviours are adaptive and enhance the ability of individuals to survive. In addition, the theory holds that the development of attachment is shaped at certain phases in life. The preference of the children towards their caregivers is not inherent since the children shape the need for attachment out of experiences with the caregiver (Bornstein 2008, p.50). Attachment theories also stipulate that children develop hierarchical relationships, which differ across persons since some are close and others strained.

In addition, the theory stipulates that the attachment to caregiver is shaped by the provision of needs and compassion during social interactions. The theory also stipulates that later experiences with caregivers coalesce to shape the child’s thoughts, expectations, emotions, memories as well as behaviours about self and others. Lastly, attachment theory holds that unrelenting separation from a caregiver or incessant changes of the caregiver may frustrate formation of adaptive attachment behaviors. Consequently, insecure attachments manifest as problems later in life (Bornstein 2008, p.51).

Critique of Attachment Theory

One of the criticisms of attachment theory is grounded in the debate on nature versus nurture. Critics argue that the theory leans too much towards the assumption of nurture. The critics hold that caregivers have minimal influence on the child’s personality or character. Attachment theory is also criticized for suggesting a preoccupation with maternal relationships. Critics argue that the preoccupation marginalizes other essential factors such as genetic predisposition, cultural child-rearing practices, sibling status, and peer-group influences among others (Goodyer 2011, p.38).

The Importance of Attachment in Childhood

Attachment establishes the foundation for the child’s later social, emotional, and cognitive development. In addition, attachment has an immense bearing on the feelings, motives, thoughts and relationships all the way through an individual’s life. Attachment in childhood is critical to the formation and maintenance of relationships. Socially competent individuals are more inclined to have better relationships and subsequent social standing (Thompson & Henderson 2011, p.39).

Individuals who develop secure attachment during childhood demonstrate more dedication, trust, and satisfaction in romantic relationships compared to those with insecure attachments. Similarly, individuals who developed secure attachments during childhood are able to triumph over problems in relationships. Secure attachment during childhood translates into enduring relationships be it business or romantic relationships.

The development of secure attachments in childhood promotes the formation of a sense of security, and this reduces stress levels. This enhances the likelihood of the individual to engage in altruistic and pro-social behaviour. Studies conducted in this area indicate that individuals with avoidant attachment have a weak predisposition to engage in philanthropic activities since insecure attachments hamper empathy. Secure attachment during childhood also enhances development of candour, authenticity, honesty, and emotional regulation (Rutter 2002, p. 364).

Secure attachment in childhood is essential since it pre-empts or lowers the onset of psychiatric disorders later in life. A child is susceptible to development of psychiatric disorders after the loss of an attachment figure. Insecure attachments in childhood predispose the child to react in a hostile manner to their environment (Sigelman & Rider 2012, p. 464). Children with severe attachment disorders mostly consider themselves as undeserving in the eyes of the caregiver.

Since attachment theory centres on children’s early relationships, which affects their development and competence to form later relationships, the theory is critical to those who work with children in care. Attachment theory is critical to those caring for foster children to avoid compromising the children’s development (Rutter 2002, p. 363). Knowledge provided by attachment theory is crucial in determining when contact is beneficial to the child experiencing dislocated relationships. Attachment theory is also essential in informing decisions concerning child placement and care.

The formation of secure attachment during childhood is also imperative in development of self-esteem in the child. Securely attached children have a strong self-concept demonstrated by a willingness to acknowledge positive attributes about themselves (Sigelman & Rider 2012, p. 463). In cases of insecure attachment, the children are predisposed to low self-esteem later in life. In addition, insecure attachment during childhood exposes children to having a weak capability for independence in later life.

In summary, research done in this area indicates that secure attachment is a protective factor that facilitates finest developmental outcomes. Insecure attachments among children predispose them to social and maladjustment problems. Similarly, children who develop disorganized attachment are more inclined to the risk for psychopathology. Children who receive positive affection and nurturing from their caregivers have an enhanced chance of a healthy development.

Children who have had a consistent and caring relationship during early years of life will most likely have improved ability to cope with stress, improved academic grades, healthier behaviours, and more positive peer interactions (Thompson & Henderson 2011, p. 40). Children who develop insecure attachments or disorganized attachments are more probable to have a life characterized by low trust since the feeling of insecurity may become part of the child’s base feeling. The base feeling that the child possesses shapes his/ her understanding of the world.

How Attachments affect a person in their Life

Attachment has a profound effect on the emotional development of the child. Attachment in this case represents an instinctive system that pursues the child’s needs. Early attachments in life have a phenomenal influence on later development. Attachments, during childhood, contribute to a wide range of individual differences that may occur later in life. This may be in aspects such as cognition, behaviour, social skills, emotional responses, and personality. The experiences that the child undergoes during childhood stimulate and organize patterns of structural growth that may yield an enhanced functional capacity for the child (Kagan 2004, p. 74). Attachment theories have made substantial inroads in demystifying the notion of early experience. Early experiences with the caregivers shape the child’s generalized expectations as well as beliefs (working models) on critical aspects such as self, the world, and relationships.

The Question on whether Insecure Attachments can be repaired

Consistent and expectable patterns of interaction between a child and the caregiver are critical for early development of the child. Nevertheless, insecure attachments and disorganized attachments may develop due to inconsistent interactions between the child and the caregiver. The disconnection that ensues between the child and the caregiver in terms of interaction and relationship formation can be repaired or reconnected.

However, avoidant attached children possess a slim margin of success in reestablishment of connection between the caregiver and the child. The caregiver should help the child to express his/ her needs freely (Kagan 2004, p. 75). The employment of effective therapeutic interventions enables the caregiver to respond to the child’s attachment needs sensitively. The prime focus should be raising the resilience of the child to counter the attachment difficulties.

Psychologists have fashioned warning signs, symptoms, and treatment to children exhibiting insecure attachment in life. This has mainly been informed by extensive research in the specialty of development of attachment in children. Psychologists probe how the child expresses and manages emotions and develops relationships as well as the child’s development to discern attachment problems (Barish 2009, p. 32). For instance, children with attachment disorder such as reactive attachment disorder may exhibit defiance, indifference, and opposition to attempts made to connect with the child.

Children with attachment difficulties feel unsafe and alone. The repairing of attachment problems calls for employment of the right tools coupled with dedication, patience, and love. In repairing of attachment disorders, caregivers should be aware that safety is a critical issue for the child since they are distrustful to the world and feel insecure in the world (Kagan 2004, p.76). Therefore, the caregiver should concentrate on restoring the child’s sense of security. This can be achieved through the establishment of concise conventions of behaviour as well as consistent responses to the child’s needs. Dependable and caring boundaries make the world seem more predictable and less frightening to children suffering from attachment problems.

In addition to making the child feel safe and secure, the caregiver should also put efforts in making the child feel loved by aiding the child in identification of emotions and expression of needs. Similarly, the caregiver should also endeavour to support the child’s health. This helps to reduce associated stress levels and levels out mood swings, which may be prevalent in children with attachment problems (Kagan 2004, p. 78).

Lastly, the caregiver may pursue professional treatment of attachment problems, which mainly incorporates therapy, counselling, and parenting education (Barish 2009, p.34). The treatment is critical in promoting of a secure living environment, structuring of positive interactions with the caregivers as well as promotion of peer relationships. Medication in this case may be directed at treating conditions such as depression, anxiety, or hyperactivity.

Conclusion

The importance of development of secure attachment in early childhood cannot be underrated. The development of secure attachments during childhood is significant to the safety and comfort of the child, especially later in life. Whereas attachment styles displayed in adulthood differ from the ones in childhood, early attachments have a critical bearing on later relationships in life. For instance, most of the people who were securely attached in childhood are more inclined to have a high self-esteem and well developed romantic relationships as well as a strong capability to self-disclose to others.

References List

Barish, K. (2009). Emotions in child Psychotherapy: An integrative framework, Oxford, Oxford University Press. pp. 32-34.

Bornstein, M. (2008). Handbook of parenting: Children and parenting, Volume 1, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 50-51.

Gabbard, G., Judith, B. & Holmes, J. (2007). Oxford theory of Psychotherapy, Oxford, Oxford University Press. p.7.

Goldberg, S., Muir, R. & Kerr, J. (2000). Attachment Theory: Social, developmental, and clinical perspectives, New York, Analytic. pp. 46-49.

Goodyer, A . (2011). Child-centred foster care: A rights-based model for practice, London, Jessica Kingsley. pp. 36-38.

Kagan, R. (2004). Rebuilding attachments with traumatized children: Healing from losses, violence, abuse, and neglect, New York, Haworth Press. pp. 74-78.

Mash, E. & Wolfe, D. (2010). Abnormal child Psychology, Belmont, Wadsworth. pp.178-182.

Rutter, M. (2002). Child and adolescent, Oxford, Blackwell Science. pp. 326-364.

Sigelman, C. & Rider, E. (2012). Life-span human development, Belmont, Wadsworth. Pp. 463-464.

Thompson, C. & Henderson, D. (2011). Counseling children, Belmont, Wadsworth. pp.39-40.

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