0 Research Proposal_ Case Study: TMZ and the How and Why of Celebrity Fandom

Abstract

This research proposal contains an overview, literature review, and methodology, limitations and delimitations, and the significance of the study. The specific research is an exploratory case study that seeks to gain insights into the nature of fandom. In terms of theoretical framework the background and emergence of fandom is considered. The literature review considers pervading theories into the nature of fandom. The case study design indicates that specifically over a two week period stories from the TMZ gossip website will be analyzed. Additionally, the story that received the most user comments for the day will be analyzed in terms of these comments. The study limitations are recognized as the challenge of making broad assumptions regarding these findings. 

I. Introduction and Theoretical Framework

            The Hollywood entertainment industry emerged as a major cultural force in the early 20^th century. While films were the driving-engine of growth, even in the early eras of Hollywood, celebrity fandom emerged as a major occurrence. It was not long before an entire star system emerged, where actors and actresses under contract with specific studios had projects tailored to them. This process continues through the present day as movie stars receive multi-million dollar contracts for a single film. While such prices seem exorbitant to some they are justified because of the significant fans these stars can bring into the theatres. Hollywood hasn’t been the only one to capitalize on such fandom; one considers that today the connection between celebrities and fans extends into a realm of not just appreciation, but also gossip and human interest. Indeed, there are a number of highly popular websites, such as TMZ and Perez Hilton where fans not only view pictures of celebrities but also gain intimate knowledge of the details of their lives.   

            Perhaps a foundational theoretical consideration in terms of the topic is the recognition that the very linguistic origins of the term celebrity share roots with such terms as ‘fame’ and ‘being thronged;’ the French ‘celebre’ means well-known in public (Marshall 1997). With such a fundamental link between celebrity and the public, it is little stretch to consider the important role fandom plays in the equation. While fandom is a regularly occurring aspect of our daily lives, with some individuals exhibiting varying degrees of fanaticism, perhaps the more fundamental question is the underlining significance of this. With the recognition of these understandings in mind this research sets about investigating the motivating influences of fandom.

II. Purpose of the Study

            The study seeks to identify the primary reasons individuals are interested in celebrity gossip. Additionally, it recognizes that there may be underlining issues the individuals are not aware of or external conditions that motivate their interest; as such the study is exploratory in that attempts to unearth and articulate cursory concerns as reflective or conflicting with past research paradigms. 

III. Review of the Literature

            There have been a number of research perspectives on the nature of fandom. It’s been argued that, “the emergence of celebrity as a public preoccupation is the result of three major interrelation historical processes. First, the democratization of society; second, the decline in organized religion; third, the commodification of everyday life” (Rojek 2001, p. 12). The link to commodification is particularly apt as it indicates that celebrity culture will be perpetually switched in response to market developments. Perhaps the most important recognition in these regards is that a ‘celebrity’ such as Jennifer Anniston or Lady Gaga is not simply an individual, but considering the stylists, public relations agents, and a variety of other inputs, more akin to an institution.

            In contemporary life the scheduling of emotions, presentation of self in interpersonal relations and techniques of public impression management, are now all mediated by celebrity influences. Furthermore, sociologists Pierre Bourdeau has even argued that celebrities contribute to “identity formation, and general forms of social interaction are patterned and inflected by the styles, embodied attitudes and conversations developed in celebrity culture” (Bourdeau as cited Marshall 1997, p. 112) The cumulative understanding of such a powerful institution as ‘celebrity’ culture should have profound implications. Essentially what these theorists have argued is that embodied in the celebrity are the very trends and democratic significations of modern existence.

            When one considers the embodiment of celebrity in modern culture one of the most central questions emerges – does celebrity influence society or does society influence celebrity. In recent years perhaps the most noticeable such celebrity influence has been that of Lady Gaga. Gaga’s style, as cultivated by her own team of artists she refers to as the Haus of Gaga, have had a direct impact on popular styles and may even be argued to empower large blocks of marginalized individuals. Still, even with the seemingly undeniable interaction between celebrity culture and fandom, there are a number of theorists that believe that the institution of ‘celebrity’ is less a democratic indicator of cultural trends and is instead the creation of a powerful elite that works to shape social ideologies. Indeed, Adorno and Horkheimer argue that celebrity images are a “coercive force, shaping society according to oppressive ideologies that favor the powerful elite, rather than the general public” And that, “the celebrity is not a real person, but merely a commodity…used to control the consciousness of a malleable public” (Adorno & Horkheimer 1979, p. 349). Even if one doesn’t embrace the argument that celebrity culture is the creation of a powerful elite, it is readily apparent that there are images of celebrity that may run counter to values. Prominently in modern culture is Kim Kardashian or the ‘celebrity institution of Kim Kardashian’. While Kim Kardashian has been widely embraced by fans, one recognizes that some may consider her image over sexualized and an attack on modern values.

            While celebrity images have been argued to influence mass culture, there are also a number of theorists who argue that such fan/celebrity interaction undergoes a process of negotiation. Indeed, “much of the literature on fans…was drive by concerns which arose from the Incorporation/Resistance paradigm…the studies were concerned to examine the way in which sectors of the audience were active in response to dominant forms of mass media” (Meyers 2009). While these are direct comments on celebrity culture, one ultimately recognizes that the institution of celebrity fandom is also an essential barometer of the pulse of the nation. One regularly witnesses such negotiation occurring through fans’ productive operations, when the celebrity gossip isn’t simply about exciting exploits, but also about moral or ethical behavior. This occurs on a daily basis with things as large as murder (OJ Simpson) and as small as basketball-star Ron Artest stiffing his ex-employee. The cumulative impact of these theoretical perspectives on celebrity, fandom, and fan productive mechanisms, demonstrates if nothing else that the institution of celebrity constitutes a major indicator of current or potential cultural trends.

IV. Questions

·         What specific elements of fandom are most interesting to fans?

·         In what ways do fans attempt to engage in fandom?

·         Are there any universals or broad ranging insights that can be established for further research?

V. The Design – Methods and Procedures

              The specific research implemented is a case study approach into the bounded phenomenon of fandom in specific context. The case study method spans a wide array of potential investigation criteria.  While one generally associates case studies with particular social events and a quasi-ethnographic form, in actuality theorists recognize that case studies extend to a variety of modes of bounded phenomenon. Thomas (2011, p. 515) offers a highly comprehensive articulation of the case study concept.

The case study takes on a number of forms. For instance, case studies can be either descriptive or explanatory. Explanatory case studies work to explore causation within the study’s specific focus as a means of establishing underlining principles, while descriptive case studies work to articulate the general phenomenon that is observed. The proscriptive case study establishes criteria for the investigation; as this study progresses specific cases that match this criteria are incorporated into the investigation. In terms of this specific case study a number of inputs will be considered. The main focus of the study is the celebrity fan-site TMZ. This site features daily celebrity gossip stories. While there is no specific number of stories that are posted per day, the total generally is between five and seven. The first stage of the case study will be to examine the celebrity cases posted during a two-week period between April 1^st, 2012 and April 14^th, 2012. The specific method implemented in analyzing the website is qualitative. The specific theoretical orientation within this qualitative analysis is phenomenology. Phenomenological analysis considers subjective reality through, “interpretive sensitivity, inventive thoughtfulness, scholarly tact, and writing talent of the human science researcher” (van Manen, 1990, p. 34). As such the research data will be analyzed and later formulated within this investigative paradigm. 

            These stories will be noted on a chart in terms of four main categorical distinctions: date ‘news’ occurred, celebrities involved, actions they were involved in, form of media implemented (video, photography, text), number of fan social media interactions with the specific story (Facebook Likes and Shares, Google Plus shares, and retweets). This data will then be implemented in exploratory analysis. Namely, specific themes or nodes will attempted to be established in the types of stories that are posted and the amount of fan interaction with these stories. While the results and potential findings remain unknown greatly influencing this research are previous studies, as established in the literature review. Within this spectrum of investigation specific consideration is given to notions of celebrity gossip as mediating between proper social practices. Additional consideration is given to the potential influence of the celebrity gossip stories as a means of stylistic influence on the audience. Finally, notions of celebrity gossip functioning simply for narrative or salacious details are considered. While these are the pervading investigative criteria, the research recognizes that in addition to these notions there is the possibility of newfound discoveries through thematic nodes. In addition to the specific stories posted over these periods, fan comments will be examined. Each posted story on TMZ has the option for fans to respond. The comment section occurs as the fan clicks on the ‘Comment’ option, bringing them to a new screen. The new screen features the original story, but now underneath are a series of post fan comments. Within this specific comments are the options of whether to ‘like’ or ‘dislike’ the specific comment, or to make a new comment. This aspect of the case study will occur, as the story that receives the most comments for the day will be analyzed. While the high amounts of comments contained per story is extensive to the point that characterizing every comment is recognized to be unfeasible a broad ranging qualitative analysis will be applied to this aspect of the research. The previously noted research questions will be considered; however added to these considerations are the recognitions that the intentions of the TMZ site makers and the fan’s interest in responding may function on divergent lines. Potential divergences will be considered within the research. The fan’s comments will further be considered in terms of the ways and reasons they seem to interact. Questions that will be thematic in this analysis are the extent that the comments and interactions are simply for social purposes, if there is a deeper significance specifically related to the celebrity story, and what motivates the others to ‘like’ and ‘dislike’ certain comments and not other. These findings will then be compared and contrasted to the findings regarding the specific stories as the research works to advance a number of broad ranging insights that could pave the way for future research.      

VI. Limitations and Delimitations

            There are a number of potential limitations to this case study. One of the most pervasive limitations is the nature of the case study format. While the case study allows for specific and improved focus on the subject matter it is necessarily limiting. In terms of this specific case there is the possibility that the celebrity fandom that is exhibited in TMZ stories and fans’ interactions with these stories is more indicative of the TMZ site than it is broader concerns with fandom throughout all venues. Another potential limitation is the time that the sample is taken. While a two week study is feasible for this specific research it is possible that during this time abnormal stories or comments are occurring that would hinder the effectiveness of the study in developing broad ranging insights into the nature of celebrity fandom. Still, even while there are limitations to the study that may restrict the expansiveness of its implications, the research recognizes that it also can function as a contributing perspective to future research into fandom.   

VII. Significance of the Study

            The study is significant on a number of grounds. From the perspective of capital organization the study indicates potential mechanisms wherein future public relations, advertising, and marketing actions could be implemented more effectively. Another significant element is the pure sociological significance of the findings, as they will potentially contribute to an increased understanding of celebrity culture and the fandom that supports it.   

References

Adorno, Theodor, and Max Horkheimer. (1979). ‘‘The Culture Industry: En- lightenment             as Mass Deception.’’ Mass Communication and Society. Ed. James Curren et al.     Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1979. 349–83.

Marshall, P. (1997) David. Celebrity and Power: Fame in Contemporary Culture.   Minneapolis:    U of Minnesota P.

Meyers, E. ‘Can You Handle My Truth?’ The Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. 42, No. 5,             2009

Rojek, C. (2001). Celebrity. Reaktion Books. 

Thomas, G. (2011) A typology for the case study in social science following a review

            of definition, discourse and structure. Qualitative Inquiry, 17, 6, 511-521

van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action

            sensitive pedagogy. London, Ontario, Canada: Althouse Press.

0 Reason, Faith and Logos

Abstract

This essay considers the extent that religious faith has anything very significant to fear, or to gain, from the arguments of philosophers. Within this context of investigation the essay traces the interaction and clash of faith and reason from a variety of historical epochs. Specifically, Greek antiquity, the Christian tradition, Renaissance and Enlightenment thought, Hegel and Descartes, Existentialism and Pragmatism are considered. The research argues that while much of the rationality and conclusions reached in these historical investigations have since been discarded by contemporary thinkers one recognizes that in many instances faith-based investigation into god and reasoning have been aligned with each, as well as with traditional academics concerns, such as politics and culture. 

Introduction

            Foundational to spiritual and philosophical investigations are the notions of reason and faith. Adherents to faith argue that true recognition of god or the divine cannot be grasped through the implementation of modern notions of reason. These views are contrasted with the perspective of humanist philosophers who advance notions of reason and science as necessary foundations of knowledge. In The Gay Science section 125 Nietzsche proclaims that God is dead – adding that we have killed him. Bearing in mind the long history of philosophical reflection on the interrelation of reason and faith, this essay considers whether religious faith has anything very significant to fear, or to gain, from the arguments of philosophers.

Analysis

            There exists considerable exploration into concerns specifically related to the interaction of faith and reason, with many philosophers and theologians contending that faith is not necessarily removed from reason. Indeed, religious theologians and philosophers to justify religious belief have used both of these concepts. Some contentious have argued that when reason is properly implemented it affirms faith; in this sense reason and faith implement essentially the same methodological means of grasping reality or the divine (Wolterstoff 1998). Still, other perspectives that are less stringent than these understandings indicate that while reason and faith adopt different processes of understanding the world, the use of reason will never be able to contradict faith, as faith is the ‘true’ grasp of this divine order (Wolterstoff 1998). However, other thinkers have argued that the very existence of a notion of ‘faith’ necessitates that it be in-direct contention with notions of reason (Alston 1998). Essentially, this argument considers that there would be no use for a faith concept if faith truly aligned itself with reason.  

            Understandably there is a significant history of thought devoted to the notions of reason and faith and their interaction. One of the earliest recorded such philosophical considerations can be attributed to Greek antiquity. This period of philosophy, known as the classic period, witnessed an explosion of intellectual growth, as a variety of thinkers wrote and debated questions that ran to the essence of the universe and humanity’s place within it. While Judaic traditions were developed during this period, to a large degree their focus was on human existence; conversely, the Greek’s considered notions of faith in regards to larger cosmological concerns (Melchert 2002). To a degree it appears that two separate traditions of thought developed in Greek society, with one embracing religious beliefs and the other more philosophically based notions of reason (Melchert 2002). Still, these Greek belief patterns were not entirely exclusive. Some theorists contend that faith and reason interacted in Greek society through the mythmaking system that developed (Melchert 2002). In these regards, Greek gods emerged that also embodied some civic virtues. These virtues would then be dispersed down to daily life, as individuals would attempt to incorporate them into their value system and regular interactions. It was only later that philosophers would attempt to attach reason or rational significance to these mythological elements that influenced civic practice (Melchert 2002). From this perspective it seems that it is religious faith that has a greater influence on reason than on the later.

            While broad ranging theories regarding reason and faith in Greek antiquity point towards the primacy of faith based modes of understanding as leading civic life, more specific analysis demonstrates reveals further insights. Perhaps central to considerations of philosophy in Greek antiquity is the work of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. To a great extent these thinkers seem less to establish modes of structural organization for faith, but rather seem to indicate that there are underlining forms of reason or intellectual organization to the faith based modes of understanding (Melchert 2002). While there are a variety of potential examples to consider perhaps the most prominent is Plato’s notion of the forms. In these regards, Plato implemented faith-based logic in his assuming that there were underlining forms to things such as ‘good’ (Melchert 2002). While faith-based reasoning is the defining element of this philosophical notion, one recognizes that to an extent faith based modes of understanding could gain from the recognition of their positioning within the broader spectrum of such reasoning as it indicates areas where faith is viably the only alternative to gaining stable knowledge or meaning.

            To a great degree Aristotle extended Plato’s original investigations into theology and faith-based understandings, however he disagrees with many of Plato’s assumptions. One considers that Aristotle rejected Plato’s concepts of the forms (Melchert 2002). While Aristotle’s replacement for the Platonic system – the unmoved mover as an unchangeable cosmic entity – was not seemingly based on any firmer grounds, it is significant that he was able to freely challenge the earlier Platonic perspectives without being accused of heresy (Melchert 2002). In these regards, there is the recognition that philosophical based modes of investigation even when incorporating elements of faith, remain in the arena that is opening to continual challenge and reconsideration, whereas faith based modes of thought continually resist any form of amendment.

            Additionally, both thinkers embraced the notion of god, while at the same time implementing reason to do so. In these regards they experimented with the notion of religious apologetics. That is, the specific implementation of reason to prove the existence of a god or divine figure. Such explorations can be discovered in Plato’s Laws and Aristotle’s Physics. In his text, Aristotle demonstrated the existence of an unmoved mover from evidence reflected in the motion of the world (Pojman 1994). Plotinus, another prominent thinker from Greek antiquity similarly implemented notions of reason and faith in his own philosophical discourse (Pojman 1994). While Plato and Aristotle’s ideas on the divine seem to contradict each other, Plotinus’ perspective unites them under a single discourse. Similarly, while Plato relied on faith-based reason, albeit in a philosophical context, and Aristotle seems to have been more aligned with reasoning through the linking of his theoretical perspective with the motion of the planets, Plotinus offers a hybrid interpretation of reality implementing both reason and faith-based models (Melchert 2002). To an extent it appears that Plotinus’ modes of understanding reflect the earlier understood versions of faith that must be in-direct accord with reason. Plotinus perspective, as articulated in the Enneads, argues that all modes of being and value originate from a singular force in the universe; he equates this singular force with the form of the Good, as established in Plato’s faith based rationalizations, or possible Aristotle’s original mover (Melchert 2002). While this original element is largely based on faith, he further argues that individuals within contemporary existence can either choose to live their lives in accord with this original force, or instead operate away from it. In a sense this form of reasoning, while rooted in faith-based modes of understanding also attaches rational significance to these elements within ancient Greek civic life. This mode of understanding has been referred to as negative theology, as it divines God by all things he isn’t (Melchert 2002). Again this is an instance where faith and reason have been combined as a means of achieving a greater perspective on existence. There is the recognition with Plotinus and Aristotle, as well as to a lesser degree with Plato, that reason is able to function up to a specific level, but there are ultimately unanswerable questions.

            The notions of thought exemplified in the major ancient Greek thinkers seems to conflict with modern faith-based religious practices that choose to allow faith to dictate entire mythmaking systems. One considers that to a large extent these modern religious institutions are rooted in Judaic traditions that themselves were in existence during the period of Greek antiquity and Christian traditions that developed relatively soon after (Pojman 1994). While most individuals in Western culture are familiar with the foundational beliefs of the Christian Judaic traditions it is notable to consider them in relation to the thought process of the aforementioned Greek thinkers. While the Greek thinkers combined reason and faith-based modes of understanding in the development of a largely nebulous god concept that mirrors later transcendental notions, the Christian tradition embrace the notion of an all-powerful God – constituted by three figures -- who created the world in seven days. Additionally, they embraced a Jesus figure that sacrificed his life for the sins of humanity.

            While such considerations are entirely founded on faith there are also a number of ways that the Christian tradition embraced reason. One of the most prominent of the early Christian thinkers was St. Paul. One of the challenges in determining Paul’s stance on faith or reason in relation to Christianity is that there are a plethora of interpretations of his writings. What ultimately emerges are conflicting perspectives on the extent that Paul believed reason could function to reveal the truths about Christianity or whether there was a transcendent ‘revelation’ that occurred to some individuals allowing them to grasp this divine reality (McGrath 1995). In terms of the first perspective scholars argue that Paul directly engaged in philosophical discussions regarding Christianity and in a sense argued for a natural theology. Namely, these interpretations consider instances where Paul seems to argue that Christianity could be grasped through real world observation (Pojman 1994). Conversely, other interpretations argue that Paul neglected these modes of understanding and instead embraced the belief that the only way to truly grasp God’s existence was to experience the revelation process, wherein God miraculously reveals his presence (McGrath 1995).

            The distinction between Christianity as established through reason or faith has continued since the early period to develop two of the major sections of Christian thought. One Christian thinker that considered such issues, as well as implemented reason as a means to better understand Christianity was St. Augustine. Today Augustine has gained a seminal position in Christian theology for his deliberations on the topic. Augustine embraced notions of faith in grasping the divine essence of God. Still, Augustine also recognized that reason should be welcomed in Christian theology as a means of faith justifying itself (Pojman 1994). It seems, however, that Augustine placed a higher degree of importance on faith-based understanding than he did reason as a way of grasping the divine (Ehrman 2011). Perhaps controversially by contemporary standards St. Augustine argued that it was all right to implement pagan sciences to attempt to study the Christian faith. He believed that these perspectives could potentially illuminate elements of Christianity (Ehrman 2011). This is a significant consideration in light of contemporary discourse. It is not a drastic step to equate the 4^th century pagan sciences that Augustine alludes to, to contemporary academic institutions. In Augustine’s time, as well as in contemporary circumstances, it is the church that is the final arbiter regarding decisions of religious doctrine; one considers the Catholic Church as retaining many of the hardline stances on revelation that emerged as early as St. Paul (Pojman 1994). Still, St. Augustine is arguing that there exists a divine essence that religious practitioners need not hide from reason. From a contemporary lens Augustine’s thought would potentially removed such decision making from the Catholic Church and place it in the context of reason or rational discourse that has been established by academic institutions. What emerge are views of faith that while adamantly criticizing pagan beliefs, have instead adopted a form of mysticism as a means of justifying their underlining claims to truth. Instead of such a stringent rejection of reason, it seems that religious discourse should openly recognize that their belief structures must exist in a dynamic process that functions in relation to faith elements.

            While significant theological considerations regarding faith and reason were explored during the Medieval Period to an extent these views can be linked to earlier ideas established by St. Paul and later St. Augustine. The next historical epochs to significantly deliberate on notions of faith and reason were the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods. One of the primary considerations of this period was the recognition that forms of science and empirical knowledge had become highly developed since St. Paul’s early teachings. While during the early Christian period and the Medieval era there was a periodic linking of faith to reason, with the advancement of empirical modes of understanding faith and reason experience a much greater divide.

            One considers that the significant divide that occurred during this period resulted in some of the greatest missuses of faith in recorded human history. One of the most notable of these instances was Galileo’s rejection of the Ptolemaic system in favor of the Copernican model. While Galileo’s understanding was based on empirical evidence, the Catholic Church condemned his ideas and he was labeled a heretic. While many past conceptions had implemented reason to understand faith, it is clear that in this instance the Catholic Church demonstrated gross overreach of faith in their rejection and condemnation of Galileo’s empirically derived knowledge. Still, there were instances during this period where reason was implemented as a means of illuminating faith. One of the most prominent occurred with the philosophy of Rene Descartes. Descartes, through his Meditations, developed a system of reason that claimed to have determined the existence of God (Grayling 2005). While contemporary philosophers reject Descartes’ assumption that God exists since God cannot be a deceiver, it seems that there is strength gained when religious doctrine is subjected to the confines of rational thought. G.W.F. Hegel, another prominent Enlightenment thinker, implemented reason-based rationality as a means of justifying the notion of faith. To an extent it seems that Hegel’s notion of faith is removed from early notions, as it is more refined in its descriptive elements (Houlgate 2005). Still, much of what Hegel justified through rational means could potentially fall under the more primitive notions of revelation. Specifically, Hegel considered that there was too much emphasis in the world placed on empiricism as a means of understanding reality (Houlgate 2005). Hegel considered that much knowing occurs through internal emotions means of recognition, wherein two separate emotions emerged (Houlgate 2005). His affirmation of God was in the deterministic process where one of these specific emotional potentials was embrace over another. One considers that such modes of rationalization continue to influence post-modern theory in the institutional environment, leaving one to question why religious doctrine refuses to subject itself to cling to the nebulous notion of faith over academic investigation (Houlgate 2005).       

            The 19^th and 20^th centuries witnessed other prominent considerations regarding reason and faith. One of the most prominent perspectives that emerged during that period was existentialism. Existentialism placed a strong emphasis on the individual and their personal creation of meaning (Solomon 1974). While Kierkegaard embraced the notion of God and faith, Nietzsche, as noted in the introduction, claimed that God is dead. Nietzsche’s belief is contingent on the notion of God as a social creation; instead Nietzsche argued that humans derive their own value system and embrace the will to power (Tanner 1994). While Nietzsche’s perspective may run extreme, it seems many of the existentialist emphasis on personal responsibility over blind allegiance to notions of faith is a strong aspect religion can learn from (Tanner 1994). Many of the world’s major belief systems are contingent on the notion of an afterlife and similar justifications for hardship. Existentialism argues that life should only be lived within the confines of reason, rather than religious doctrine determinable only by faith. The clear implications of such a consideration is the potential for individuals to not live their lives to the greatest capacity, since they believe the religious doctrine that indicates there will be an afterlife. Similarly, there is the potential that these individuals do not properly internalize external events and as such do not gain as much as they should from their experiences. Still, furthermore, the embracement of a faith-based mode of understanding oftentimes does merely function in the religious arena, but also extends into other aspects of the individual’s life. In these regards, the adoption of faith over reason in regards to God could have the potential impact of leading the individual to implement such logic in terms of politics or even to outright reject scientific findings. The obvious impact of such a world-view is dangerous not only to the individual, but to the society they live and are expected to make equal contributions.    

            Another prominent perspective that emerged during this period was pragmatism, which situated faith as at times necessary to act in the world. Finally, this time period witnessed the emergence of Darwin’s theory of natural selection and evolutionary theory. Like Galileo before him, Darwin’s theory of evolution is grounded in scientific evidence, however faith-based modes of reasoning from religious institutions have frequently failed to embrace the theory because it contradicts doctrine (Helm 1999). It seems in such instances that faith again has overstepped its boundaries and must be realigned with reason. While such large-scale attacks of reason on religious doctrine occur infrequently, one considers that there may be many small instances wherein the subjection of religion to more rational or empirical modes of investigation could reveal and sharpen theological practice. 

Conclusion                      

            In conclusion, this essay has considered the extent that religious faith has anything very significant to fear, or to gain, from the arguments of philosophers. While much of the rationality and conclusions reached in these historical investigations have since been discarded by contemporary thinkers one recognizes that in many instances faith-based investigation into god and reasoning have been aligned with each, as well as with traditional academics concerns, such as politics and culture. Today such considerations surrounding religion have been seemingly discarded such that religious studies only consider historical or socio-cultural elements surrounding religion. What emerge are views of faith that while adamantly criticizing pagan beliefs, have instead adopted a form of mysticism as a means of justifying their underlining claims to truth. Questions of the existence of god are entirely left to faith-based modes of understanding, which remain largely static even in the face of overwhelming contradictory scientific evidence. It appears that the inclusion of religion within the realm of rational investigation would not necessarily cease the institution of religion, but rather establish more stringent foundations for the truth claims that exist therein. Instead of such a stringent rejection of reason, it seems that religious discourse should openly recognize that their belief structures must exist in a dynamic process that functions in relation to faith elements. Ultimately, such considerations could extend religion outside of its marginal bounds to a position of even greater social prominence.    

 References

Alston, W. (1998)  “History of Philosophy of Religion.” The Routledge Encyclopedia of    Philosophy. Vol. 8. Ed. E. Craig. New York: Routledge.

Ehrman, B (2011). The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian     Writings. Oxford University Press

Grayling, A.C. (2005). Descartes: The Life and times of a Genius. New York: Walker        Publishing Co.

Helm, P. (1999). Faith and Reason. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Houlgate, S. (2005). An Introduction to Hegel. Freedom, Truth and History. Oxford:         Blackwell

McGrath, A. (1995). The Christian Theology Reader. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Melchert, N (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to   Philosophy.     New York: McGraw Hill.

Pojman, L. (1994). Philosophy of Religion: An Anthology. 2^nd ed. Belmont CA.:     Wadsworth.

Solomon, R. (1974). Existentialism. New York: The Modern Library.

Tanner, M (1994). Nietzsche. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wolterstoff, N. (1998) “Faith.” The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 3. Ed. E.             Craig. London: Routledge

0 Research Articles Digest

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